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3) trial courts of general
jurisdiction
в) handle cases involving delinquent children under a
certain age
4) trial courts of limited
jurisdiction
г) usually handle minor violations of traffic laws
5) probate courts
д) handle cases involving offences against city
ordinances
6) family courts
е) usually has discretionary review as to whether to
accept an appeal or not
7) traffic courts
ж) deal with only specific types of cases
8) juvenile courts
з) handle matters concerning administering the estate of
a decedent (a person who has died), see that the
provisions of a will are carried out, etc.
9) small claims courts
и) hear cases outside the jurisdiction of the trial courts
of limited jurisdiction and can try both civil and
criminal cases
10) municipal courts
к) are courts between the trial courts of general
jurisdiction and the highest court in the state
READING AND SPEAKING
1. Выскажите мнение по поводу следующих утверждений. Обоснуйте
свои ответы, доводы могут быть взяты из текста. Начните ответ с
одной из речевых моделей:
а) выражения полного согласия: “It goes without saying that… because…”,
“I fully agree with this statement … as…”;
б) выражения абсолютного несогласия: “Nothing of the kind, because…”,
“Surely not”, “On the contrary”;
в) выражения неуверенности и неясности позиции: “I’m not quite sure
about it but I can say that…”, “That’s hard to say but I think that…”
1) All the state judicial systems are exactly alike.
2) Most state court systems are made up of two tiers and consist of trial court
and the highest court of appeal.
3) State court judges can hold their judicial offices during ‘good behavior’
without time limitation.
4) Trial courts of limited jurisdiction deal with only specific types of cases.
Substantiate (обоснуйте) your answer.
5) Trial courts are the most common type of courts of general jurisdiction.
6) In a trial by jury a judge must decide issues of facts, while jury must decide
issues of law.
7) Parties usually appeal to intermediate appellate courts when they are not
satisfied with the judgment of a lower trial court.
8) Appeals are mainly heard by a single judge.
9) The highest court of appeal in states usually has the power of judicial
review.
61
10) If in some state there is no intermediate appellate court an appeal is usually
Court
jurisdiction
judges
taken to the US Supreme Court.
11) Supreme Courts can never have original jurisdiction over cases.
12) In the event of conflicts between federal and local (state) legislation state
laws prevail.
13) State courts are subject to federal courts.
2. Ответьте на следующие вопросы. Постарайтесь отвечать в опоре на
активную лексику темы, не глядя в текст:
1) Under what kinds of principles do state court systems operate?
2) Why are there no exactly alike state court systems in the USA?
3) In what way do state judges get their offices?
4) What trial courts of limited jurisdiction can you name? What is their
jurisdiction?
5) Why are courts of general jurisdiction considered to be main trial courts of
state judicial systems?
6) In what event and what court may a party appeal the matter to?
7) What is the main principle of functioning of the highest appellate courts in
states?
8) Over what kinds of cases can Supreme state courts administer original
jurisdiction?
9) To sum up, name main peculiarities of the division of the judicial system
into two separate systems of courts.
3. В опоре на схему типичной судебной системы штатов, которая дана в
тексте 3-ой части раздела и сам текст заполните следующую ниже
таблицу. По данной таблице составьте резюме на тему «Структура
типичной судебной системы штатов в США»
TEST YOURSELF
Прежде чем перейти к изучению следующей темы, проверьте, запомнили
ли вы значения и смысл следующих ключевых терминов и
терминологических сочетаний по данной теме:
trial courts
courts of general jurisdiction
courts of limited jurisdiction
intermediate appellate courts
the highest appellate court (the
Supreme Court of the State)
probate courts
family courts
traffic courts
juvenile courts
small claims courts
municipal courts
62
to handle suits / matters
to decide issues of law
to decide issues of facts
to hear appeals
to have discretionary review over
appeals
to appeal the matter to…
ADDITIONAL READING
THE STRUCTURE OF RUSSIAN COURTS
The present Russian judicial system follows the State’s administrative structure
and reflects the complex make-up of the largest country in the world.
The judicial power in Russia is exercised by the Constitutional Court of Russia,
general jurisdiction courts and arbitration courts by means of constitutional, civil,
administrative and criminal judicial proceedings.
The judicial system of the Russian Federation consists of courts at the federal level
and regional courts:
1. COURTS AT THE FEDERAL LEVEL
1.1 The Constitutional Court
This is the highest judicial body in the Russian Federation. It is made up of 19
judges, proposed by the President of the Russian Federation (Article 127 of the
Constitution) and approved by the Federation Council. Since June 2008 the
Constitutional Court has been located in St Petersburg.
The Constitutional Court has jurisdiction to interpret the RF Constitution; to decide
whether a federal law is consistent with the country’s Constitution; and to
adjudicate whether or not laws regulations and normative acts passed by the
President of the Russian Federation, the Council of the Federation, the State Duma,
the Government of the Russian Federation, constitutions of republics, charters and
other normative acts of the subjects of Russian Federation are consistent with the
Constitution of the Russian Federation (Article 125 of the Constitution).
Courts of General Jurisdiction
1.2 The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation
This is the supreme judicial body for all courts of general jurisdiction on civil,
criminal and administrative matters. As for today the Supreme Court consists of
about 170 judges. Like the Constitutional Court, judges of the Supreme Court are
proposed by the President of the Russian Federation (Article 127 of the
Constitution) and approved by the upper house of the legislature, the Federation
Council. The Supreme Court is located in Moscow.
It has jurisdiction as a court of cassation, i.e. it is the highest court of appeal in the
land. It is a court of supervisory instance (supervisory review) over the courts of
63
the subjects of the Russian Federation and over the tier of district courts below that
level. There are several chambers in the structure of the Supreme Court of the
Russian Federation such as Judicial Chamber on Civil Cases; Judicial Chamber on
Criminal Cases; Military Chamber, Economic (Arbitration) Chamber and others.
Its own sphere of original jurisdiction covers conflicts between the acts and
decrees passed by the RF government bodies (ministries, departments, etc.) and
federal legislation; it also hears the most serious criminal cases as the court of first
instance.
The Plenum of the Supreme Court can issue regulations. Regulations are a unique
element of the machinery for the implementation of domestic law in the Russian
legal system. Enacted by the Plenum, they are “explanations on issues of judicial
practice”, based on the overview and generalization of the jurisprudence of the
lower courts and Supreme (or highest) Courts of subjects of the Federation.
Regulations are abstract opinions (not decisions in concrete disputes) but legally
binding on all lower courts and they summarize the judicial practice of lower
courts and explain how a particular provision of the law shall be applied.
Regulations have their legal basis in Article 126 of the RF Constitution.
1.3 Military Courts
The basic tier of military courts is presented by military courts of the armies, fleets,
garrisons and military formations. The middle tier of military courts consists of
military courts of the branches of the armed forces, the seven Military Districts
into which the country is divided, and the districts of anti-aircraft defence, navy
and individual armies. They consider disputes involving military personnel. Threetiered system of military courts is an integral part of Courts of General Jurisdiction.
Arbitration Courts (commercial courts)
Arbitration courts form a system with jurisdiction over commercial disputes that,
as a rule, arise between companies and individual entrepreneurs, both Russian and
foreign.
1.4. The Economic (arbitration) Chamber.
This chamber acts both as a court of extra judicial instance (supervisory review)
and of original jurisdiction.
It exercises original jurisdiction over disputes between the Russian government
and commercial parties, the government and subjects of the Russian Federation, or
between subjects of the Russian Federation.
2. REGIONAL COURTS
2.1 Constitutional Courts (or Charter Courts) of the Subjects of the Russian
Federation with the jurisdiction to interpret Regional Constitutions and Charters
and decide whether local statutes are consistent with Regional Constitutions and
Charters.
64
Courts of General Jurisdiction
2.2 Courts of the subjects of the Russian Federation
These include the Supreme Courts of the Republics, the highest Courts of each
Region, the Moscow, Saint-Petersburg and Sevastopol City Courts and the courts
of autonomous districts. Courts of the subjects of the Russian Federation serve as
courts of cassation and extraordinary appeal (supervisory review) from their
subordinate district courts. Their original jurisdiction constitutes challenges to
normative laws and regulations of the regional authorities, and adoption of
regulations.
2.3 There are district courts located in the country’s smaller towns and rural
administrative areas including groups of villages; major cities have several such
courts. District courts are the basis of the system of courts of general jurisdiction
with jurisdiction over the overwhelming majority of civil and criminal cases,
unless otherwise provided by law. As courts of appeal, district courts decide
appeals from justices of the peace.
2.4 Justices of the peace form an integral part of the system of courts of general
jurisdiction, although they are considered to be regional judges. Justices of the
peace are professional judges, with the same status and responsibilities as other
federal judges, although on lower salaries. They handle small civil disputes, petty
administrative and criminal offences. Appeals against decisions of justices of the
peace go to district courts, the decisions of which are final. In each district there
may be several justices of the peace.
Arbitration Courts (commercial courts)
2.5 The ten Federal District Arbitration Courts act as courts of cassation only.
2.6 The Appellate Courts consider appeals as a re-hearing with new evidence
(unlike a cassation proceeding, which is limited to a review of the law).
2.7 The Arbitration Courts of the subjects of the Russian Federation consider
the absolute majority of commercial disputes.
65
UNIT 4
CRIMINAL LAW AND CRIME
LEAD-IN
1. Criminal Law (www.wikipedia.com) is categorized as a part of public law in
contrast with civil law because it aims to protect public (as the whole society) from
harm. The matter is that modern society considers crimes to be offences against
public and the state while most of civil offences (torts) are concerned with the
rights and duties of individuals (private or legal ones).
2. Thus Criminal Law (www.wikipedia.com) regulates relations between the
state and citizens or organizations unlike Civil Law which involves private
individuals and legal individuals (for ex., different types of companies and other
similar organizations).
PART I
CRIMINAL LAW
ACTIVE VOCABULARY
1. criminal liability – уголовная
ответственность
prosecution – преследование в судебном
порядке, уголовное преследование
to define types of crimes – определять
виды преступления
legal punishments – законные
(предусмотренные законом) наказания
to prevent – предотвращать,
предупреждать (преступления)
to investigate - расследовать
regulations – здесь: предписания
conduct of trials – проведение судебного
процесса
operation of penal institutions –
функционирование (деятельность)
исправительных учреждений
2. harm – вред
to vary – варьироваться
bodily injuries – телесные повреждения,
увечья
loss – потери, убытки
damage to property – имущественный
ущерб, ущерб имуществу
to prohibit – запрещать
offences – правонарушения
3. available – доступный
to punish criminals – наказывать
преступников
to sentence offenders – приговаривать
преступников , выносить приговор
imprisonment – тюремное заключение
incarceration – тюремное заключение
to suspend the sentence – условно
отсрочить исполнение приговора,
приостановить введение приговора в
силу
to impose a fine – назначить, наложить
штраф
to impose damages – назначить
возмещение убытков (компенсацию)
to place on parole or probation –
освободить условно-досрочно (на поруки
или с испытательным сроком)
community service – исправительные
общественные работы
4. to prove guilt – доказывать вину
beyond reasonable doubt – вне всяких
разумных сомнений (чтобы не осталось
никаких сомнений)
corpus delicti – лат. состав преступления
responsibility – ответственность
commission of the criminal act –
совершение уголовного деяния
to apply punishments – применять
наказания
double jeopardy – вторичное
привлечение к уголовной
ответственности (за одно и то же
преступление)
restriction - ограничение
not expressly forbidden – незапрещенный
явно, определенно
66
READING
Прочитайте текст, опираясь на активную лексику темы.
1. Criminal law also called (though quite seldom) as penal law is the branch of
public law that deals with criminal liability involving the prosecution by the state
of a person for an act that has been classified as a crime (though some jurisdictions
allow private criminal prosecution). Therefore, criminal law defines types of
crimes and legal punishments for them. Besides, it contains rules and procedures
to prevent and investigate crimes and prosecute criminals, as well as the
regulations to govern the structure of courts, the conduct of trials, the
organization of police forces and the operation of penal institutions.
2. The harm that criminal law tries to prevent varies greatly. It may be
physical harm or bodily injuries and death to human beings; sexual immorality;
the loss of or damage to property; danger to the government; disturbance of the
public peace and order; or obstruction of justice. That’s why criminal law
commonly prohibits several categories of offences: offences against the person,
offences against property, offences against the state, public-order crimes, business
or corporate crimes.
3. Depending on the offence and the jurisdiction, various punishments are
available to the courts to punish criminals. A court may sentence offenders to
execution (or death penalty) or to loss of liberty (imprisonment or
incarceration); may suspend the sentence; impose a fine or damages; put
offenders under government supervision through parole or probation; or place
them on community service order.
4. Despite the variety of criminal acts and legal punishments for them, there are
several universal principles on which criminal law is based:
1) there is the principle of presumption of innocence meaning that an accused is
innocent until the prosecution proves his guilt beyond any reasonable doubt;
2) a person may not be considered guilty unless all elements of an alleged
crime (corpus delicti) have been established in his acts: thus in AngloAmerican systems responsibility can exist only in the presence of guilt on the
one hand and if the commission of the criminal act by this very offender has
been proved on the other hand;
3) criminal punishment shall be applied only by a sentence of a court on the
basis of the law: the principle “no punishment without the trial and law”
guarantees that a person can only be punished for a crime if the punishment is
prescribed for this offence by a certain law;
4) protection against double jeopardy is the restriction against prosecuting a
person more than once for the same offence;
5) restriction of the time within which legal proceedings may be brought in
order to protect persons against claims made after disputes have lost their
67
acuteness, evidence has been lost, or witnesses have disappeared; the prescribed
1. penal
a) prosecution
2. criminal
b) peace and order
3. private
c) law
4. bodily
d) crimes
5. public
e) principles
6. corporate
f) liability
7. available
g) doubts
8. community
h) jeopardy
9. universal
i) injuries
10. alleged
j) service
11. reasonable
k) punishments
12. double
l) institutions
1. to deal with
a) government supervision
2. to prevent
b) a fine
3. to investigate
c) the sentence
4. to prosecute
d) the jurisdiction
5. to depend on
e) crimes
6. to sentence
f) the guilt beyond
reasonable doubts
7. to suspend
g) criminals
8. to impose
h) community service
9. to put under
i) harm
13. to place on
j) criminal liability
14. to prove
k) offenders
15. to prescribe
l) punishments
periods may vary according to the seriousness of the offence from a few months
to several decades;
6) the principle that citizens have the right to do everything that is not
expressly forbidden by the state: this doctrine nevertheless must rest on the
belief that criminal acts may be recognized as harmful and immoral by any
reasonable adult, besides everyone nowadays knows that ‘ignorance of the law
is no defence’.
VOCABULARY FOCUS
1. Соотнесите слова из колонок так, чтобы получились
терминологические сочетания из текста, переведите составленные
фразы на русский язык:
A.
B.
68
C.
1. the conduct of
a) a criminal act
2. the operation of
b) the public peace and order
3. loss of
c) crimes
4. damage to
d) the state
5. disturbance of
e) the person
6. obstruction of
f) trials
7. offences against
g) liberty
8. supervision
through
h) justice
9. presumption of
i) parole or probation
10. commission of
j) the person
11. restriction of
k) property
12. seriousness of
l) innocence
READING AND SPEAKING
1. Опровергните следующие утверждения. Аргументируйте свой ответ
(доводы могут быть взяты из текста). Начните ответ с одного из
следующих выражений:
а) выражения абсолютного несогласия: “Nothing of the kind”, “Surely not”;
б) выражения неуверенности и неясности позиции: “I’m not quite sure
about it but I think that…”, “That’s hard to say …”
1) Criminal law covers a very narrow range of tasks (purposes).
2) The harm that criminal law tries to prevent does not differ much.
3) The number of available legal punishments is very limited.
4) The accused must prove his innocence himself.
5) The person will be convicted once the commission of the criminal act is
proved.
6) If a person has committed a crime he may be brought before the trial at any
time without any time restrictions.
2. Ответьте на вопросы по тексту. Постарайтесь отвечать в опоре на
активную лексику темы, не глядя в текст:
1) Give definition of criminal law as a legal branch.
2) What does criminal law deal with as a legal branch? Enumerate its purposes.
3) What categories of offences does criminal law prohibit? Why?
4) What types of legal punishments are available to the courts?
5) Enumerate main universal principles of criminal law.
6) What does the presumption of innocence mean?
7) What is corpus delicti? What role does it have in the criminal proceedings?
8) What does the principle “no punishment without the trial and law” mean?
9) Explain the meaning of the expression “protection against double jeopardy”.
69
10) Why is the time restriction so important in the process of criminal
prosecution?
3. Напишите эссе на тему: «Особенности уголовного права как
отрасли», отметив следующее:
definition of criminal law as a legal branch
main spheres (objectives) of its regulation
universal principles on which criminal law is based
TEST YOURSELF
Прежде чем перейти к изучению следующей темы, проверьте,
запомнили ли вы значения и смысл следующих ключевых терминов и
терминологических сочетаний по данной теме:
crime (a crime)
types of crimes
to prevent crimes
to investigate crimes
to commit crimes
public-order crimes
corporate crimes
a criminal
criminal
criminal law
criminal liability (responsibility)
criminal prosecution
to impose a punishment (a fine,
damages…)
to sentence offenders to…
supervision through probation or
parole
to place on community service
imprisonment (incarceration)
presumption of innocence
to prove (to find) guilty or innocent
to prove the case beyond
reasonable doubts
corpus delicti
double jeopardy
harm
damage
bodily injury
loss
offences against the person
offences against property
offences against the state
to punish
punishment
70
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