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Апараджита Бисвас
to the quest for natural resources, there have been signicant investments
in other raw materials
170
.
In East Africa, Mauritius is a major Indian FDI destination,
particularly in the nancial, telecommunications and pharmaceuticals
sectors, which account for about 70% of total ows into the continent.
The total investment in Ethiopia by over 250 Indian companies stood at
$4 billion by April 2008
171
. In East African countries Indian private sectors
have made substantial investment in land. According to a media report,
approx. 70 Indian companies have collectively invested in land valued at
$2,3 billion, in Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Senegal and Mozambique.
Some African countries are offering land on lease for 99 years to overseas
farmers, and several farmers from the state of Punjab in India have already
migrated to these countries and begun farming. The countries which offer
big opportunities include Ethiopia, Malawi, Kenya, Uganda, Liberia,
Ghana, Congo and Rwanda.
The leading Indian investors in African agriculture includes Karuturi
Global, one of the world’s largest producers of cut roses. Karuturi Ago
Products, a subsidiary of Karuturi Global Ltd., acquired 100,000 hectares
of land in the Jikao and Itang Districts of the Gambela region in Ethiopia,
for growing palm, cereal and pulses. It has also bought farm land in Kenya
to grow sugar cane, palm oil, rice and vegetables. Interestingly, the owner
of Karuturi Global Ltd. also owns Karuturi Sports, a Kenyan football club
(earlier called Sher Agencies) that plays in the country’s premier league
172
Another leading edible oil manufacturer, Ruchi Soya Industries, acquired
a 25-year lease for a soyabean processing unit on 152,649 ha in Gambela
and Benishangul Gumaz
173
States of Ethiopia.
Tea companies from India are also acquiring estates in Africa in a big
way. The B.M. Khaitan-owned McLeod Russel India, the largest integrated
tea company in the world, has already taken the acquisition route with
Uganda’s Rwenzori Tea Investments, which it bought for $25 million
.
170
ONGC Videsh Ltd, OVL- Built Sudan Pipeline dedicated to the people of
Sudan. December 10, 2005 – http://www.ongcvidesh.com/NewsContent.aspx?ID=10
0&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1
171
Indian Investors eyeing Ethiopian agriculture – http://articles.economictimes.
indiatimes.com/2011-08-29/news/29941168_1_ethiopian- agriculture-addis-ababaindian-investors
172
Indian Investors buy Farmlands in Africa – http://www.africa-business.com/
features/indians-africa-farmlands.html
173
Ruchi Soya buys land in Africa – http://www.indiainfoline.com/Markets/
News/Ruchi-Soya-buys-land-in-Africa-Asia/221691162
122
Growing Trade Relations of BRICS
(Rs 117 crore). The acquisition was executed through Borelli Tea Holdings,
UK, a wholly-owned subsidiary of McLeod Russel India. The B K Birlacontrolled Jay Shree Tea & Industries, which recently acquired three tea
gardens in East Africa, two in Rwanda and one in Uganda, is now looking
at increasing its presence in Africa. .
The second most attractive region for Indian FDI is North Africa
which has attracted investment worth over $550 million till March 2007.
Indian enterprises have a total of $750 million invested in 40 projects
in Egypt alone, covering diverse areas like chemicals, petrochemicals,
pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, garments etc. Arcelor Mittal, which is the
leading global steel company, launched a $1 billion iron ore mining project
in Liberia, which is expected to create around 3500 direct jobs and another
15,000 to 20,000 indirect jobs
174.
In West Africa, Nigeria attracts signicant
Indian investments. By 2007, Nigeria was India’s largest trading partner
in the continent with major FDI directed at oil, metals, rubber and plastic
products, infrastructure machinery and equipment.
Although Southern Africa had attracted a minimal proportion of total
Indian direct investment (1,4%) to Africa by 2007 in comparison to the
North, East and West Africa, major Indian corporations now have a presence
in the region. In Zambia, Vedanta Resources has invested about $750
million in copper mine project. In South Africa, the Indian conglomerate
Tata Group has 26% participation and Tata Motors is the 6th largest investor
company in South Africa, with investments estimated at nine billion rands
($1 billion). The Tata Group is already in the mining sector in Mozambique
and South Africa, but is now looking for more opportunities in coal and iron
ore in East and West African regions. With a substantial presence of Tata
Consultancy Services in South Africa, the company is seeking to expand
its presence by venturing to other countries. Furthermore, Tata Steel in
a tie-up with South Africa’s Sasol Synfuel International is setting up the
country’s rst project to convert coal into liquid at a mammoth investment
of Rs 45,000 crore in Orissa
175
.
The route followed by Indian companies in Africa is largely through
acquisitions led by private players, unlike China’s policy of direct
investments through state-owned entities. In fact, according to Thomson
174
Liberia: Arcelor Mittal to Begin Exports in 2010 – http://allafrica.com/
stories/200801250578.html (January 2008)
175
DNA. Tata Steel, Sasol Synfuels in Rs 45,000 crore Orissa plan – http://www.
dnaindia.com/money/report_tata-steel-sasol-synfuels-in-rs-45000-crore-orissa-
plan_1336762 (January 20, 2010)
123
Апараджита Бисвас
Reuters data, Indian acquisitions were a third of total acquisitions (in terms
of value) in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2010, the highest by any country in
the region. In the ICT sector, major initiatives in the African countries
have been taken by Indian private sectors. The takeover of Zain Telecom’s
Africa Operations by Indian telecom major Bharti Airtel for $10,7 billion
has ensured its presence in 15 African countries and also made it the 7th
largest telecom player in the world.
Companies such as Bharti Airtel and multinational conglomerate
Tata Group, which operate in Nigeria, invest in African markets on their
own volition and do not seem to be supported by the Indian Government.
These companies wield considerable inuence in the Nigerian market, and
Nigeria is the third biggest importer of Indian goods and services among
African countries.
Like Bharti Airtel, other Indian companies are grabbing a market share
not only in Nigeria, but in the wider African market too. For example, in
2010, Godrej acquired the Nigerian personal care product maker Tura
176
for about $33 million, and is planning to acquire 51% stake (which will
eventually be 100% in 3 years) for over INR 500 crores in the hair care
company, Darling Group Holdings. On the other hand, Tech Mahindra, an
information technology outsourcing company now provides customer care
services in several African countries. Through partnering with Bharti Airtel,
Tech Mahindra has also partnered with MTN and Multilink in Nigeria.
China’s engagements in Africa
China- Africa trade continues to boom in 2011.China’s two-way trade
in this year is estimated to reach $110 billion. China‘s emergence as a
major trading partner for Africa is likely to continue to grow further.. To
boost its trade, China cuts tariffs on 95% of commodities from the least
developed African nations. Recently, it offered $10 billion in preferential
loans to several African countries
177
.
Although trade with Africa still makes up a relatively small share of
China’s total external trade, it is growing rapidly and is concentrated in
commodities that are essential for China’s own development and growth.
Between 2000 and 2009 China’s trade with Africa has risen as a share of
its total from 1,7% to 3,4% of China’s exports and 2,4% to 3,9% of its
imports. A disaggregation of the China-Africa trade reveals that Africa‘s
176
Godrej to Acquire Hair Care Products Maker Issue Group – http://www.
stockwatch.in/godrej-acquire-hair-care-products-maker-issue-group-26275 (2010)
177
China Cuts Import Tariffs For African Countries – http://www.tax-news.com/
news/China_Cuts_Import_Tariffs_For_African_Countries (July, 2012)
124
Growing Trade Relations of BRICS
trade with China is concentrated with only a few countries on the continent.
Both gures indicate that around 60% of Chinese exports are destined
for just six African countries. South Africa (21%), Egypt (12%), Nigeria
(10%), Algeria (7%), Morocco (6%) and Benin (5%) while 70% of Chinese
imports originate from four countries: Angola (34%), South Africa (20%),
Sudan (11%) and Republic of Congo (8%). Sales of machines, electronics
and new high-tech goods have grown rapidly, totalling more than half of
the value of China’s exports to Africa
178
.
The major portion of Chinese imports reects importance of crude oil –
in fact, it imports 70% of oil from Africa, accounting for all of Chinese
imports from Angola and Sudan. In addition, China depends crucially on
Africa for its imports of cobalt (more than 80%), mainly from Gabon,
South Africa, and Ghana. Africa also accounts for a signicant share of
China’s imports of timber (mainly from Gabon, Republic of Congo, and
Cameroon) as well as of chromium (South Africa, Madagascar, and Sudan).
China’s agriculture exports also take a major share although they constitute
the bulk of imports from several African countries. To boost China’s trade
in Africa, China Exim Bank have increased its loan disbursement from
about $0,3 billion in 2001 to $2,1 billion in 2009
179
.
From the African perspective, China clearly holds more importance
as a trading partner than vice versa. Taking exports and imports together,
China has already overtaken the United States as Africa’s largest trading
partner. By 2009, China was Africa’s second largest export partner after
the United States having surpassed France, Italy, and Spain. Exports to
China have grown from 2,9% of Africa’s exports in 2000 to 11,2 % in
2009, well ahead of any of the other BRIC countries (Brazil and India
accounted for about 2,5–4,4% of Africa’s exports in 2009, and Russia
just 1%).
Energy and mineral products are the main exports of China. On the
import side, China was the largest trading partner of Africa accounting
for 13,4% of Africa’s imports in 2009 compared with just 3,3% in 2000.
During the 1980s and 1990s, imports from China used to consist mainly
of textiles, garments, light industrial products and food, but since 2000
high value-added products have increased their share, e.g., machinery
equipment, automobiles, electronics and telecommunications equipment.
178
Meidan Michal. China’s Africa Policy, Business Now, Politics Later // Asian
Perspectives. 2006. Vol. 30, №. 4, p. 69–93.
179
Christensen Benedicte Vibe. China in Africa. A Macroeconomic Perspectives.
Working Paper 230. Central Global Development, 2010.
125
Апараджита Бисвас
Mechanic and electronic products now account for more than 50% of
Africa’s imports from China
180
.
One of the challenging developments in China-Africa trade is that
China’s trade with Africa will be denominated in RMB (the Renminbi) by
2015. The South Africa-based Standard Bank recently published a research
report saying that at least 40%, or $100 billion, of China’s trade with Africa
will be denominated in RMB by 2015. According to the report, more and
more Chinese manufactured goods will be exported in the country’s local
currency (or RMB), rather than in US dollars, and Africa is fast becoming
one of the rst destinations to seek large scale RMB- denominated trades and
investment. The progress China has made in its RMB internationalization
will not only increase efciency and resilience in its trading and investment
transactions, it will also challenge the role of the US dollar, the world’s
principal reserve currency. China is also pioneering the establishment of
Special Economic Zones, or export processing zones, throughout sub-
Saharan Africa
181
.
Foreign Direct Investment of China
According to China’s statistical bulletin, during the rst half of 2009,
Chinese FDI ows into Africa increased by 81% over the same period in
2008, reaching over $0,5 billion. Similar to trade patterns, China’s outward
FDI to Africa is dominated by a few resource-rich countries. South Africa,
where the Chinese Industrial and Commercial Bank acquired a 20% stake
in the Standard Bank, accounted for most of the growth in 2008. Other
major recipients of Chinese FDI in 2008, by order of importance were
Nigeria (9%), Zambia (5%), Algeria (5%) and Sudan (4%), the position
taken by Nigeria, the leading oil producer of sub-Sahara Africa, reects
the Chinese strategy in recent years of seeking energy independence.
However, natural resources and infrastructural sectors are not only the main
attraction of Chinese FDI. Ofcial statistics indicate that at a global level,
China’s outward FDI has shifted toward the service sector, with mining
(including oil) accounting for less than one quarter of the total in value
terms, in 2009
182
.
180
Brautigam Deborah. China, Africa, and the International Aid Architecture //
African Development Bank Group. Working Paper Series, № 107, 2010.
181
IMF. New Growth Drivers for Low-Income Countries: The Role of BRICs.
Prepared by the Strategy, Policy, and Review Department (In collaboration with the
African Department) January 12, 2011.
182
Brautigam Deborah. Op. cit.
126
Growing Trade Relations of BRICS
It may be noted that Chinese enterprises investing in strategic sectors
such as oil, ores or infrastructure are mostly state-owned and/or subsidized
with Chinese grants or by state-owned banks. These enterprises often
manage large investment projects. For instance, the state-owned China
National Petroleum Corp (SNP) which is the leading foreign investor in
Sudan, is controlled either by the central or local government in China.
Chinese investments in Africa by medium to large-sized enterprises are
found mainly in manufactured goods, telecommunications and wholesale
trade sectors while small rms are dominant in the light industry and
retail sectors. Although the SMEs certainly play an important role and
are present in most African countries, they are not properly captured
in ofcial statistics. China’s FDI ows involved the mining sector
(40,74%), business services (21,58%), nance (16,4%), transport and
telecommunications (6,57%), wholesale and retail trade (6,57%) and
manufactured goods (4,33%), with the other sectors being only slightly
represented.
Moreover, Chinese bids for resources fare well because they are
packaged with investments and infrastructure loans. China preeminently
invests “in long neglected infrastructure projects and hardly viable
industries” , and its loans, typically advanced at zero or near-zero interest,
are often repaid in natural resources, if they are not canceled entirely. In
Angola, China offered $2 bn in aid for infrastructure projects and secured
a former Shell oil block that the largest Indian company had sought. In
Nigeria, a promised $7 bn in investments and rehabilitation of power
stations secured for PRC rms oil areas sought by Western multinationals
183
Chinese companies outbid Brazilian and French rms for a $3b iron ore
project in Gabon after pledging to build a rail line, dam, and deepwater
port. Its rms had $6.3b in construction contracts in 2005 and now employ
many African workers
184
.
China’s infrastructural investments too are very visible in Africa.
In Many African countries China collaborates with the local rms. For
example, China’s Road and Bridge Corporation (CRBC) collaborated with
local Ethiopia investors and formed the Road and Bridge Construction
Company (RBC) in 2003. The RBC has well over 23 road, yover and
.
183
Alden C. and Davis M. A Prole of the Operations of Chinese Multinationals
in Africa // South African Journal of International Affairs. Vol. 13, Issue 1, Summer/
Autumn 2006, p. 83–96.
184
Singh A. China and Africa: Friend and Foe // Financial Mail. March 3, 2006.
127
Апараджита Бисвас
bridge projects throughout Ethiopia, with a budget of well over $500
million and 1 500 employees
185.
Historically, it was one of the rst sectors in which China invested
in Africa. Today, over 35 African countries are engaged with China in
infrastructure nancing arrangements, with the largest recipients being
Nigeria, Angola, Sudan and Ethiopia. Investment in African infrastructure
has remained stable at around $ 5 billion per year during 2005 to 2009
suggest that about 54% of China’s support to Africa over the period
2002–2007 was in infrastructure and public works. Recent examples are
roads and bridges in Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), railways in
Angola, and power stations in Zambia
186
.
Chinese investments are often structured around oil and mineral
resources, even in fragile African states. China is building high-voltage
power transmission lines to interconnect countries in Southern Africa,
thereby strengthening African integration. In Addis Ababa, the new
headquarters of the African Union, a prestige project is being built by the
Chinese as are roads, bridges and other major projects around the country.
In the rail sector, China’s largest deals include the construction of mass
transit systems as in Nigeria, and the construction of new lines linked to
mining developments in Gabon and Mauritania.
In the ICT sector, the largest ICT project with Chinese involvement
comprises the rollout of a national communications network in Ethiopia.
The very large Chinese telecom equipment and network solutions provider,
Zhongxing Telecommunication Equipment Corporation (ZTE), also has a
presence in the Nigerian mobile telecom market, mostly through cooperation
with existing GSM and code division multiple access (CDMA) operators in
the country. ZTE established a subsidiary company in Nigeria in 1999 – the
same year that the Nigerian telecom sector was deregulated. Reportedly,
it regards Nigeria as «key for their African business activities in the next
couple of years»
187
. Huawei Technologies, another Chinese corporation,
also established its operations in Nigeria in 1999 and boasts of more than
50% of its employees being local
188
. Huawei provides telecom solutions and
185
Thakur Monika. Building on Progress? Chinese Engagement in Ethiopia.
№ 38, July 2009. SAIIA.
186
Lum Thomas. China’s Assistance and Government- Sponsored Investment
Activities in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia // Congressional Research
Service, 7-5700. November 25, 2009 – http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R40940.pdf
187
Chinese telecommunication magnate to expand Nigerian market // Xinhua.
August 25, 2011 – http://news.xinhuanet.com
188
http://www.huawei.com
128
China-Africa Relations
possesses knowledge in telecom network infrastructure, software, devices,
and professional services
189
. Currently, Huawei has an advantage position
in the Nigerian telecom market as a hardware provider, in cooperation with
telecom operators in Nigeria.
Conclusion
As Asian countries, the investments of India and China in Africa are
undoubtedly different from that of US or Western engagements. Both
countries are proactive in their foreign policies towards Africa, and their
current thrust into sub-Saharan Africa promises to do more for the economic
growth and structural transformation of African economies. In fact, African
countries have beneted enormously from the facilities provided by India
and China in infrastructural projects..
There is no denying that both India and China have been criticized in
international circles, mostly by human rights advocates, for their refusal to
intervene in Sudan for peace and human rights, in Kenya after the disputed
election at the end of 2007, and for supporting the Mugabe regime in
Zimbabwe. However, both countries have adopted a realist foreign policy
stand of not meddling in the internal affairs of African countries, and also,
not mixing economies with politics.
Д-р Хэ Вэйпин (Китай)
CHINA-AFRICA RELATIONS:
CURRENT SITUATION
AND FUTURE CHALLENGES
The rapid development of China-Africa relations in recent decade can
be seen as one of the most important phenomena in modern international
relations. It is quite obvious that Africa has been high on China’s diplomat-
ic agenda in recent years. The year of 2006, in particular, has been named
as the “Africa Year in China”.
Along with the release of the very rst White Paper on China’s Africa
Policy in January 2006 and the First China-Africa Summit of the Forum
for China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) in early November 2006, which
brought more than 40 African heads of state to Beijing, the high prole
189
Uzor B. Etisalat signs $118m contract with Huawei Technologies // Business
Day. August 9, 2011 – http://www.businessdayonline.com
129
Хэ Вэйпин
activities of China in Africa have also included a number of high-level
ofcial visits to Africa by President Hu Jintao, Premier Wen Jiabao, other
cabinet members and the members of the Political Bureau. For example,
President Hu Jintao visited Morocco, Nigeria and Kenya in April 2006.
And very soon Premier Wen Jiabao toured Egypt, Ghana, Republic of the
Congo, Angola, South Africa, Tanzania and Uganda in June 2006.
The series of events speak of the great importance the Chinese
Government and leaders attach to China-Africa relations. At the same time,
they are indicative of the fact that China-Africa relations have moved into
an era of rapid development characterized by cooperation half a century
after the establishment of bilateral diplomatic ties.
With the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s, Africa lost its much-
valued geopolitical status. As a result, the attention the West devotes to Africa
has been constantly on the decline. The continent is being marginalized in
the diplomatic strategies of major Western countries. However, China is as
always committed to developing relations with Africa. While cementing
their economic and trade ties that began to expand in the 1980s, China
sees great value in fostering an across-the-board relationship with Africa
by forging closer political, cultural and educational links.
Current situation of China-Africa Trade & Economic Cooperation
Economically speaking, to develop Sino-African relations is the
requirement for China’s economy to carry out sustainable development.
China and Africa are mutually complementary partners that benet
each other. Africa is a promising continent with rich natural and human
resources and a huge market. However, having suffered from colonialism
and regional conicts, it is still mired in economic backwardness and lacks
the funds, technology and experience for development. China has achieved
a remarkable economic takeoff since the advent of economic reforms more
than 20 years ago. Despite the progress, it faces new problems such as a
severe energy shortage and escalating competition in its domestic market.
Given these factors, the Chinese Government encourages Chinese rms to
invest in Africa in various elds such as trade, agriculture, infrastructure
construction, mining and tourism while offering an increasing amount of
assistance with no political strings attached.
At present, trade between China and Africa is undergoing rapid
growth. The bilateral trade volume rose from $12,11 million in the 1950s
to $10,5 billion in 2000 and record high of $106,8 billion in 2008, and then
over $160 billion in 2011, leading China to become one of Africa’s most
important trading partners after the United States in 2009 and has now
130
China-Africa Relations
overtaken most individual EU countries
190
. In recent years in particular,
China has increased imports from African countries and thus maintained a
trade decit with them, enabling these countries to earn a large amount of
foreign exchange. African exports to China had gone up from $5,6 billion
in 2000 to $ 43,3 billion in 2009. According to a Chinese expert calculation in common use, the contribution of China-Africa trade to African economic growth has reached around 20% in recent years
191
.
In recent 10 years, Chinese rms have redoubled their efforts to penetrate the African market. To date, the direct Chinese investment in Africa
has grown from $200 million in 2000 to $1,44 billion in 2010, thus making
Africa the fourth destination for Chinese investments.
Nearly 2000 Chinese companies are currently operating in Africa, engaged in trade, manufacturing, natural resource exploitation, transportation, agriculture and agricultural processing. Africa now is China’s second
largest overseas labor and project contracting market. Chinese companies
have helped create employment opportunities in African countries, increase their tax revenues, introduce practical technologies to these countries, enhance the competence of local workers and improve their produc-
tivity.
Until the end of September 2009, China has spent RMB (the Renmim-
bi) 76 billion in assisting African countries and provided about RMB46
billion loan as well
192
. Since 1956, China has helped African countries to
establish nearly 900 projects, including textile factories, hydropower stations, stadiums, hospitals and schools, and more than half of them are re-
lated with the people’s livelihood
193
. After the establishment of FOCAC
in 2000, the development assistance and investment in Africa have been
improved and strengthened. At the China-Africa Summit in 2006, China
announced the 8-point aid package which included China’s pledge to dou-
190
See: Looking East: A Guide to Engaging China for Africa’s Policy-Makers //
African Center for Economic Transformation (ACET) Report. November 2009.
191
Jia Qingling (President of Chinese Political Consultative Conference –
CPCC). The speech given in the opening ceremony of “China-Kenya Economic and
Trade cooperation Forum” in Nairobi, Kenya in April 24, 2007 during his visit in
Kenya // People’s Daily. Overseas Edition, April 26, 2007.
192
Premier Wen Jiabao gave the number at the press conference after the opening
ceremony of the 4th FOCAC meeting in Sharm ElSheikh, Egypt on 9th November,
2011 – http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2009-11-10/021419010123.shtml
193
Press conference speech given by Chen Jian, Deputy Minister of Chinese
Ministry of Commerce on November 2, 2009 – http://www.dzwww.com/
rollnews/200911/t20091103_5135515.htm
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