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Файл:литература / Digital_Video_and_HD_Second_Edition_Algorithms_and_Interfaces.pdf
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- •Contents
- •Figures
- •Tables
- •Preface
- •Acknowledgments
- •1. Raster images
- •Aspect ratio
- •Geometry
- •Image capture
- •Digitization
- •Perceptual uniformity
- •Colour
- •Luma and colour difference components
- •Digital image representation
- •Square sampling
- •Comparison of aspect ratios
- •Aspect ratio
- •Frame rates
- •Image state
- •EOCF standards
- •Entertainment programming
- •Acquisition
- •Consumer origination
- •Consumer electronics (CE) display
- •Contrast
- •Contrast ratio
- •Perceptual uniformity
- •The “code 100” problem and nonlinear image coding
- •Linear and nonlinear
- •4. Quantization
- •Linearity
- •Decibels
- •Noise, signal, sensitivity
- •Quantization error
- •Full-swing
- •Studio-swing (footroom and headroom)
- •Interface offset
- •Processing coding
- •Two’s complement wrap-around
- •Perceptual attributes
- •History of display signal processing
- •Digital driving levels
- •Relationship between signal and lightness
- •Algorithm
- •Black level setting
- •Effect of contrast and brightness on contrast and brightness
- •An alternate interpretation
- •Brightness and contrast controls in LCDs
- •Brightness and contrast controls in PDPs
- •Brightness and contrast controls in desktop graphics
- •Symbolic image description
- •Raster images
- •Conversion among types
- •Image files
- •“Resolution” in computer graphics
- •7. Image structure
- •Image reconstruction
- •Sampling aperture
- •Spot profile
- •Box distribution
- •Gaussian distribution
- •8. Raster scanning
- •Flicker, refresh rate, and frame rate
- •Introduction to scanning
- •Scanning parameters
- •Interlaced format
- •Interlace and progressive
- •Scanning notation
- •Motion portrayal
- •Segmented-frame (24PsF)
- •Video system taxonomy
- •Conversion among systems
- •9. Resolution
- •Magnitude frequency response and bandwidth
- •Visual acuity
- •Viewing distance and angle
- •Kell effect
- •Resolution
- •Resolution in video
- •Viewing distance
- •Interlace revisited
- •10. Constant luminance
- •The principle of constant luminance
- •Compensating for the CRT
- •Departure from constant luminance
- •Luma
- •“Leakage” of luminance into chroma
- •11. Picture rendering
- •Surround effect
- •Tone scale alteration
- •Incorporation of rendering
- •Rendering in desktop computing
- •Luma
- •Sloppy use of the term luminance
- •Colour difference coding (chroma)
- •Chroma subsampling
- •Chroma subsampling notation
- •Chroma subsampling filters
- •Chroma in composite NTSC and PAL
- •Scanning standards
- •Widescreen (16:9) SD
- •Square and nonsquare sampling
- •Resampling
- •NTSC and PAL encoding
- •NTSC and PAL decoding
- •S-video interface
- •Frequency interleaving
- •Composite analog SD
- •15. Introduction to HD
- •HD scanning
- •Colour coding for BT.709 HD
- •Data compression
- •Image compression
- •Lossy compression
- •JPEG
- •Motion-JPEG
- •JPEG 2000
- •Mezzanine compression
- •MPEG
- •Picture coding types (I, P, B)
- •Reordering
- •MPEG-1
- •MPEG-2
- •Other MPEGs
- •MPEG IMX
- •MPEG-4
- •AVC-Intra
- •WM9, WM10, VC-1 codecs
- •Compression for CE acquisition
- •AVCHD
- •Compression for IP transport to consumers
- •VP8 (“WebM”) codec
- •Dirac (basic)
- •17. Streams and files
- •Historical overview
- •Physical layer
- •Stream interfaces
- •IEEE 1394 (FireWire, i.LINK)
- •HTTP live streaming (HLS)
- •18. Metadata
- •Metadata Example 1: CD-DA
- •Metadata Example 2: .yuv files
- •Metadata Example 3: RFF
- •Metadata Example 4: JPEG/JFIF
- •Metadata Example 5: Sequence display extension
- •Conclusions
- •19. Stereoscopic (“3-D”) video
- •Acquisition
- •S3D display
- •Anaglyph
- •Temporal multiplexing
- •Polarization
- •Wavelength multiplexing (Infitec/Dolby)
- •Autostereoscopic displays
- •Parallax barrier display
- •Lenticular display
- •Recording and compression
- •Consumer interface and display
- •Ghosting
- •Vergence and accommodation
- •20. Filtering and sampling
- •Sampling theorem
- •Sampling at exactly 0.5fS
- •Magnitude frequency response
- •Magnitude frequency response of a boxcar
- •The sinc weighting function
- •Frequency response of point sampling
- •Fourier transform pairs
- •Analog filters
- •Digital filters
- •Impulse response
- •Finite impulse response (FIR) filters
- •Physical realizability of a filter
- •Phase response (group delay)
- •Infinite impulse response (IIR) filters
- •Lowpass filter
- •Digital filter design
- •Reconstruction
- •Reconstruction close to 0.5fS
- •“(sin x)/x” correction
- •Further reading
- •2:1 downsampling
- •Oversampling
- •Interpolation
- •Lagrange interpolation
- •Lagrange interpolation as filtering
- •Polyphase interpolators
- •Polyphase taps and phases
- •Implementing polyphase interpolators
- •Decimation
- •Lowpass filtering in decimation
- •Spatial frequency domain
- •Comb filtering
- •Spatial filtering
- •Image presampling filters
- •Image reconstruction filters
- •Spatial (2-D) oversampling
- •Retina
- •Adaptation
- •Contrast sensitivity
- •Contrast sensitivity function (CSF)
- •24. Luminance and lightness
- •Radiance, intensity
- •Luminance
- •Relative luminance
- •Luminance from red, green, and blue
- •Lightness (CIE L*)
- •Fundamentals of vision
- •Definitions
- •Spectral power distribution (SPD) and tristimulus
- •Spectral constraints
- •CIE XYZ tristimulus
- •CIE [x, y] chromaticity
- •Blackbody radiation
- •Colour temperature
- •White
- •Chromatic adaptation
- •Perceptually uniform colour spaces
- •CIE L*a*b* (CIELAB)
- •CIE L*u*v* and CIE L*a*b* summary
- •Colour specification and colour image coding
- •Further reading
- •Additive reproduction (RGB)
- •Characterization of RGB primaries
- •BT.709 primaries
- •Leggacy SD primaries
- •sRGB system
- •SMPTE Free Scale (FS) primaries
- •AMPAS ACES primaries
- •SMPTE/DCI P3 primaries
- •CMFs and SPDs
- •Normalization and scaling
- •Luminance coefficients
- •Transformations between RGB and CIE XYZ
- •Noise due to matrixing
- •Transforms among RGB systems
- •Camera white reference
- •Display white reference
- •Gamut
- •Wide-gamut reproduction
- •Free Scale Gamut, Free Scale Log (FS-Gamut, FS-Log)
- •Further reading
- •27. Gamma
- •Gamma in CRT physics
- •The amazing coincidence!
- •Gamma in video
- •Opto-electronic conversion functions (OECFs)
- •BT.709 OECF
- •SMPTE 240M OECF
- •sRGB transfer function
- •Transfer functions in SD
- •Bit depth requirements
- •Gamma in modern display devices
- •Estimating gamma
- •Gamma in video, CGI, and Macintosh
- •Gamma in computer graphics
- •Gamma in pseudocolour
- •Limitations of 8-bit linear coding
- •Linear and nonlinear coding in CGI
- •Colour acuity
- •RGB and R’G’B’ colour cubes
- •Conventional luma/colour difference coding
- •Luminance and luma notation
- •Nonlinear red, green, blue (R’G’B’)
- •BT.601 luma
- •BT.709 luma
- •Chroma subsampling, revisited
- •Luma/colour difference summary
- •SD and HD luma chaos
- •Luma/colour difference component sets
- •B’-Y’, R’-Y’ components for SD
- •PBPR components for SD
- •CBCR components for SD
- •Y’CBCR from studio RGB
- •Y’CBCR from computer RGB
- •“Full-swing” Y’CBCR
- •Y’UV, Y’IQ confusion
- •B’-Y’, R’-Y’ components for BT.709 HD
- •PBPR components for BT.709 HD
- •CBCR components for BT.709 HD
- •CBCR components for xvYCC
- •Y’CBCR from studio RGB
- •Y’CBCR from computer RGB
- •Conversions between HD and SD
- •Colour coding standards
- •31. Video signal processing
- •Edge treatment
- •Transition samples
- •Picture lines
- •Choice of SAL and SPW parameters
- •Video levels
- •Setup (pedestal)
- •BT.601 to computing
- •Enhancement
- •Median filtering
- •Coring
- •Chroma transition improvement (CTI)
- •Mixing and keying
- •Field rate
- •Line rate
- •Sound subcarrier
- •Addition of composite colour
- •NTSC colour subcarrier
- •576i PAL colour subcarrier
- •4fSC sampling
- •Common sampling rate
- •Numerology of HD scanning
- •Audio rates
- •33. Timecode
- •Introduction
- •Dropframe timecode
- •Editing
- •Linear timecode (LTC)
- •Vertical interval timecode (VITC)
- •Timecode structure
- •Further reading
- •34. 2-3 pulldown
- •2-3-3-2 pulldown
- •Conversion of film to different frame rates
- •Native 24 Hz coding
- •Conversion to other rates
- •Spatial domain
- •Vertical-temporal domain
- •Motion adaptivity
- •Further reading
- •36. Colourbars
- •SD colourbars
- •SD colourbar notation
- •Pluge element
- •Composite decoder adjustment using colourbars
- •-I, +Q, and Pluge elements in SD colourbars
- •HD colourbars
- •References
- •38. SDI and HD-SDI interfaces
- •Component digital SD interface (BT.601)
- •Serial digital interface (SDI)
- •Component digital HD-SDI
- •SDI and HD-SDI sync, TRS, and ancillary data
- •Analog sync and digital/analog timing relationships
- •Ancillary data
- •SDI coding
- •HD-SDI coding
- •Interfaces for compressed video
- •SDTI
- •Switching and mixing
- •Timing in digital facilities
- •Summary of digital interfaces
- •39. 480i component video
- •Frame rate
- •Interlace
- •Line sync
- •Field/frame sync
- •R’G’B’ EOCF and primaries
- •Luma (Y’)
- •Picture center, aspect ratio, and blanking
- •Halfline blanking
- •Component digital 4:2:2 interface
- •Component analog R’G’B’ interface
- •Component analog Y’PBPR interface, EBU N10
- •Component analog Y’PBPR interface, industry standard
- •40. 576i component video
- •Frame rate
- •Interlace
- •Line sync
- •Analog field/frame sync
- •R’G’B’ EOCF and primaries
- •Luma (Y’)
- •Picture center, aspect ratio, and blanking
- •Component digital 4:2:2 interface
- •Component analog 576i interface
- •Scanning
- •Analog sync
- •Picture center, aspect ratio, and blanking
- •R’G’B’ EOCF and primaries
- •Luma (Y’)
- •Component digital 4:2:2 interface
- •Scanning
- •Analog sync
- •Picture center, aspect ratio, and blanking
- •R’G’B’ EOCF and primaries
- •Luma (Y’)
- •Component digital 4:2:2 interface
- •43. HD videotape
- •HDCAM (D-11)
- •DVCPRO HD (D-12)
- •HDCAM SR (D-16)
- •JPEG blocks and MCUs
- •JPEG block diagram
- •Level shifting
- •Discrete cosine transform (DCT)
- •JPEG encoding example
- •JPEG decoding
- •Compression ratio control
- •JPEG/JFIF
- •Motion-JPEG (M-JPEG)
- •Further reading
- •46. DV compression
- •DV chroma subsampling
- •DV frame/field modes
- •Picture-in-shuttle in DV
- •DV overflow scheme
- •DV quantization
- •DV digital interface (DIF)
- •Consumer DV recording
- •Professional DV variants
- •47. MPEG-2 video compression
- •MPEG-2 profiles and levels
- •Picture structure
- •Frame rate and 2-3 pulldown in MPEG
- •Luma and chroma sampling structures
- •Macroblocks
- •Picture coding types – I, P, B
- •Prediction
- •Motion vectors (MVs)
- •Coding of a block
- •Frame and field DCT types
- •Zigzag and VLE
- •Refresh
- •Motion estimation
- •Rate control and buffer management
- •Bitstream syntax
- •Transport
- •Further reading
- •48. H.264 video compression
- •Algorithmic features, profiles, and levels
- •Baseline and extended profiles
- •High profiles
- •Hierarchy
- •Multiple reference pictures
- •Slices
- •Spatial intra prediction
- •Flexible motion compensation
- •Quarter-pel motion-compensated interpolation
- •Weighting and offsetting of MC prediction
- •16-bit integer transform
- •Quantizer
- •Variable-length coding
- •Context adaptivity
- •CABAC
- •Deblocking filter
- •Buffer control
- •Scalable video coding (SVC)
- •Multiview video coding (MVC)
- •AVC-Intra
- •Further reading
- •49. VP8 compression
- •Algorithmic features
- •Further reading
- •Elementary stream (ES)
- •Packetized elementary stream (PES)
- •MPEG-2 program stream
- •MPEG-2 transport stream
- •System clock
- •Further reading
- •Japan
- •United States
- •ATSC modulation
- •Europe
- •Further reading
- •Appendices
- •Cement vs. concrete
- •True CIE luminance
- •The misinterpretation of luminance
- •The enshrining of luma
- •Colour difference scale factors
- •Conclusion: A plea
- •Radiometry
- •Photometry
- •Light level examples
- •Image science
- •Units
- •Further reading
- •Glossary
- •Index
- •About the author
Code Interpretation
0 Forbidden
1Respect for HD or SD
2 Unspecified
3 Reserved/future
4 Suspect (Use code 1)
5 Respect for SD
6 Respect for SD
7 Suspect (Use code 1)
8 Suspect (Use code 1)
Table 18.4 Color primaries interpretation.
Code Interpretation
0 Forbidden
1 Respect
2 Unspecified
3 Reserved/future
4 Use code 1
5 Use code 1
6 Replace with code 1
7 Suspect (Use code 1)
8 Suspect (Use code 1)
9 Suspect (Use code 1)
10Suspect (Use code 1)
11xvYCC: Implement
12Suspect (Use code 1)
13 … Reserved
255
Table 18.5 Transfer characteristics interpretation.
Code 11, xvYCC, might be used in future systems, but is highly unlikely to be encountered today.
Code Interpretation
0 Forbidden/GBR
1 Respect for HD
2 Unspecified
3 Reserved/future
4 Respect for SD
5 Respect for SD
6 Respect for SD
7 Suspect (Use code 1)
8 Y’CGCO: Implement
9 … Reserved
255
Table 18.6 Matrix coefficients interpretation. Code 8 (Y’CGCO) might be used in future systems. I am unaware of any decoder today that will decode Y’CGCO colour space, and no functional benefit is evident. It is highly unlikely to be encountered.
Conclusions
In the studio, MXF enables reliable coding, storage, and transport of metadata in files. ANC packets can convey metadata across HD-SDI streams; however, there are no common, widely used practices concerning how metadata is handled alongside video passed through processing equipment.
Apart from MXF files and HD-SDI ANC metadata, studio equipment has no reliable metadata system.
Migration to file-based workflows enables reliable metadata processing. However, the conceptual problems of metadata (evident in my examples 0 through 5 above) remain. I suggest these guidelines for implementing metadata systems:
• Devise metadata carefully. Have clear rules for what metadata to encode, and how to interpret metadata at decoding time. Don’t be encyclopedic: “Make the system as simple as possible, but no simpler” [Einstein].
CHAPTER 18 |
METADATA |
179 |
•Metadata should be inessential, otherwise it would be data: Design your system to work without metadata, then add metadata as augmentation.
•Strive for a design such that adding metadata never impairs the operation of the base system.
•If information is already available in data, don’t duplicate it in metadata: To do so opens the possibility (at a later date) of conflicting information.
•If in a particular system design it is possible for essence to be separated from its metadata, the format chosen for essence must be able to serve its purpose in the absence of metadata.
180 |
DIGITAL VIDEO AND HD ALGORITHMS AND INTERFACES |
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