2. Find synonyms for the following words in the text.

1. Distinctive 6.Neighbored

2. Very small 7. Disordered

3. Component 8. Three axis

4. Outstanding 9. Noticeable

5. Magnetism 10. Complex

Listening Discuss these questions with your partner. What’s Einstein’s contribution to chemistry science? Do you know anything about Einstein’s childhood? Do know what his hobby was?

b. Listen to part of a radio interview with a historian talking about Einstein. Then complete each sentence with a word or a short phrase.

1. Einstein made his first scientific discovery when he was……………..years old.

2. He realized that something was causing the needle of the compass………………………………...in a certain way.

3. He taught himself………………………..at the age of 12.

4. Einstein tried to get information about the speed of ….........by looking into………………. .

5. Recent research shows that there is no ……………………in the belief that Einstein had a learning difficulty.

7. Speaking

1. Discuss these questions with your partner.

• Which area of Einstein’s work do you think is the most important? Why?

• Do you agree with Einstein’s statement that we should never stop questioning and looking for answers? Why? /Why not?

2. Do you agree with the following quotes? Why? Why not? Try to explain what Albert Einstein meant by saying them.

• “Everybody is a genius.”

• “I, at any rate, am convinced that He [God] is not playing at dice.”

• “The world is a dangerous place to live; not because of the people who are evil, but because of the people who don't do anything about it.”

• “A person, who never made a mistake, never tried anything new.”

• Logic will get you from A to B. Imagination will take you everywhere.”

8. Writing

Choose one quote and write a short essay (150-200 words).

X. Extra activities

Chemical nomenclature

Chemical nomenclature is a system of rules for naming chemical compounds which is to ensure that the name of every compound, whether spoken or written, matches a single substance, and, if possible, that the substance has a single name. The first attempt to provide a system of naming compounds goes back to the late 18^th century (A. Lavoisier) and has been constantly refined. The present nomenclature of inorganic and organic compounds as recommended by IUPAC can be found in its Red Book and Blue Book, respectively. However, there exist even other forms of naming depending on the user and addressee. Therefore, there is no single correct form of nomenclature, but there are various forms appropriate to the circumstances. The traditional system for naming inorganic compounds used below is intended for both non-specialist and specialist users among engineering students.

The nomenclature of oxides depends mainly on the number of oxides which the given element can form. If the element forms only one oxide, the name of the element (cation) comes first, without any change (irrespective of the valence state of the element), followed by the word “oxide”, i.e. element + oxide e.g. Al2O3 – aluminium oxide. If the given element can form more than one oxide, the valence state is taken intoconsideration. It is expressed by prefixes mono- [´monǝ-, ´mono-, ´monəu], di- [dai-], tri- [trai-], tetr(a)- [´tetrǝ-], pent(a)- [´pentǝ-/ pen´ta-], hex(a)- [´heksǝ-/ hek´sa-], hept(a)- [´heptǝ/, hep´ta-], oct(a)- [´oktǝ-/ ok´ta-].

The prefix becomes part of the word “oxide” element + mono/di…oxide

e.g. NO2 – nitrogen dioxide, N2O3 – nitrogen trioxide, N2O5 – nitrogen pentoxide.

• affixes -ous [-ǝs] (for the lower valence state), -ic [-ik] (for the higher valence state)

The affix is added to the name of the cation to distinguish between the R2O and RO types of oxides. They are used only with Latin names of elements: cation of the element …ous + oxide, cation of the element …ic + oxide, e.g. N2O – nitrous oxide, NO – nitric oxide.

• prefix sesqui- [´sekwi-]

The prefix becomes part of the word “oxide” of the R2O3 type. Element + sesquioxide, e.g. Mn2O3 – manganese sesquioxide.

• prefix sub- [sab-] or hemi- [´hemi-]

The prefix denotes an oxide in a valence state lower than the common valence state of the element:element + sub/hemi…oxide , e.g. Pb2O – lead suboxide, lead hemioxide.

• prefix per- [pǝ-] orsuper- [´sju(:)pǝ-] The prefix denotes a peroxide, e.g. H2O2 – hydrogen peroxide

Oxides with two different valence states of the element are denoted by combining the names of both oxides: Fe3O4 – ferriferous oxide, ferrosoferric oxide.

Acids not containing oxygen atoms are denoted by: affix –ic [-ik] and the word “acid” [´asid]: e.g. HCl – hydrochloric acid , Hl – hydroiodic acid or the acidic molecules can be considered compounds with hydrogen and the names are formed as with oxides: e.g HCl – hydrogen chloride.

To name the acid, the number of possible acids is decisive. If only one acid can be formed, its name is formed by adding –ic [-ik] to the element e.g. H2CO3 – carbonic acid. If only two acids can be formed, as with oxides, the affix –ous [-ǝs] denotes the lower valence acid and –ic [-ik] the higher valence acid: e.g. HNO2 – nitrous acid, HNO3 – nitric acid. If the given element forms more than two acids, the acid in the lowest valence state combines the prefix hypo- [´haipəu-] with the affix –ous [-ǝs]; for the highest valence the affix –ic [-ik] and the prefix per- [pǝ-] are combined, e.g. HClO – hypochlorous acid,HClO2 – chlorous acid, HClO3 – chloric acid, HClO4 – perchloric acid.

The English system uses the following prefixes: meta- [´metǝ-],ortho- [´oθǝ-, o´θo-], pyro- [´pairəu-], thio- [´θaiəu-], hypo- [´haipə-]:e.g. HPO3 – metaphosphoric acid, H3PO4 – orthophosphoric acid, H4P2O7 – pyrophosphoric acid, H3PO3S – thiophosphoric acid.

Similar to oxides, the word hydroxide [hai´droksaid], is combined with the unchanged name of the cation if only one hydroxide can be formed: e.g. NaOH – sodium hydroxide and with the name of the element with affixed –ous [-ǝs] or –ic [-ik] to distinguish between the lower and higher valence states, respectively:

e.g. Fe(OH)2 – ferrous hydroxide, Fe(OH)3 – ferric hydroxide.

To name the salt, the number of possible salts is decisive. If the cations form a salt in a single valence state, the name is formed as with oxides, i.e. the cation remains unchanged and the name is given by the anion with the affix –ide [-aid]:

element + anion…ide, e.g. NaCl – sodium chloride. If the cation forms salts in various valence states, then, similar to oxides, the valence state is taken into consideration. It is expressed by prefixes mono- [´monǝ-, ´mono-, ´monəu-], di- [dai-], tri- [trai-], etc.:e.g. FeS – iron monosulphide, FeS2 – iron disulphide or affixes –ous [-ǝs] and- ic [-ik]. The affix becomes part of the cation name, e.g. FeCl2 – ferrous chloride, FeCl3 – ferric chloride.

The valence state of the metal can also be denoted by the Roman numeral,

e.g. FeCl3 – iron (III)-chloride.

The name of salts of acids containing oxygen is formed by starting from the name of the respective acid, and- the affix –ous [-ǝs] is replaced by the affix –ite [-ait] or- the affix –ic [-ik] by the affix –ate [-eit], preserving also the respective prefixes hypo- and per-: e.g. hypochlorous acid – hypochlorite, chlorous acid – chlorite, chloric acid – chlorate, perchloric acid – perchlorate.

a. Read the following inorganic formulas aloud using the rules described above: AlBr₃, AlCl₃, AsBr₃, Ca (OH)₂, CaCO₃, Ca(HCO₃)₂, CO_2, CO, CS₂, Cl₂O, Cl₂O₆, Cu₂Br₂, FeCl₃, FeCl₂, HCl (aq), HF (aq), H₂O₂, H₂S, PbS, MnCl₂, NO, N₂O, SiO₂, AgCl, Na₂CO₃, NaCl, SO₂, SO₃, H₂SO₄.

b. Write eight more formulas and exchange with your partner. Read them aloud.