Study the following words and word combinations

annihilate, v – знищити

associate, v – асоціювати, пов’язувати

attempt, n – спроба

bind (bound, bound), v – скріплювати, пов’язувати

briefly, adv – коротко

chromodynamics, n – хромодинаміка

cluster, v – групуватися

complicate, v – ускладнювати

decay, v – затухати

diffusely, adv – розкидано

gluon, n – глюон

immense, adj – величезний

insist on, v, prep – наполягати на

nevertheless, prep – проте

quark, n – кварк

throughout, prep – впродовж

tightly, adv – напружено, міцно

unstable, adj – нестійкий

Exercise 4. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian.

1. Just one of these bombs could annihilate a city the size of New York. 2. I don't associate him with physics at all. 3. All attempts to control inflation have failed. 4. The hydrogen molecule binds with the oxygen molecule. 5. Briefly, I think we should accept their offer. 6. Industries in Britain tend to be clustered together. 7. The situation is complicated by the fact that I've got to work late on Friday. 8. People who travel by rail still read an immense amount. 9. He insisted on checking everything himself. 10. Nevertheless, most of the universe we know is made of quarks. 11. Quarks are smaller than atoms. 12. An unstable chemical is likely to separate into simpler substances.

TEXT 1

Particles and Fields

The number of the particles of each type in the present universe is the result of a complicated history. Most of the particle types that were abundant in the early universe have long ago disappeared. We only observe them when they are produced briefly in laboratories, and then annihilate or decay. Because of this we are uncertain of how many particle types may exist.

In the present universe, quarks and electrons have properties that allow them to form the tightly bound clusters that we call nuclei and atoms. Photons and neutrinos cannot do this, and so exist much more diffusely throughout the universe.

Nevertheless, most of the universe we know is made of quarks and electrons, and the present picture we have of the world is largely an expression of the properties of these particles. Of the two, quarks have a greater tendency to cluster together. Indeed, this tendency is so pronounced that quarks are believed to be never found in isolation, but only in combinations containing either three quarks or one quark and one antiquark. These are the combinations that make up most of the subatomic particles that are observed, such as protons and neutrons, the particles found in the nuclei of atoms.

The reasons why quarks insist on clustering in this way are not completely understood. There is a general theory, known as quantum chromodynamics (QCD) that attempts to describe how quarks behave. QCD involves the interactions of fields associated with quarks and fields associated with another type of particle called gluons (so named because they bind the quarks together). Most physicists believe that when the predictions of this theory are better understood, we will know why quarks cluster as they do.

Ever since the first microsecond after the origin of the universe, quarks have been bound together, in groups of three, into neutrons or protons. All of the other combinations of quarks or the other quark types, which also can bind together, are unstable under present conditions. That is, if they are produced, they change spontaneously into less massive particles, and eventually into some combination of the stable ones. Even neutrons are unstable when they are found in isolation – as when they arc produced in nuclear reactors – and decay into protons in a few minutes. The reason that neutrons exist at all in the present universe is that when given the chance they bind together into more complex and lasting objects. Neutrons can bind with protons into atomic nuclei, and with one another in immense numbers into neutron stars.

Exercise 5. Give the Ukrainian equivalents to the expressions.

the number of the particles; the result of a complicated history; were abundant in the early universe; produced briefly in laboratories; annihilate or decay; the tightly bound clusters; exist diffusely throughout the universe; this tendency is so pronounced; to be never found in isolation; the reasons why quarks insist on clustering; that attempts to describe how quarks behave; involves the interactions; they bind the quarks together; are unstable under present conditions; they change spontaneously into less massive particles; decay into protons in a few minutes.

Exercise 6. Decide if the following statements are true or false.

1. The particle types haven’t been changed since the origin of the universe.

2. Some types of particles can be produced only in laboratories.

3. Scientists know the exact number of particle types.

4. Quarks and electrons are able to form the tightly bound clusters that we call nuclei and atoms.

5. Photons and neutrinos have the same properties that quarks and electrons do.

6. Of the two, electrons have a greater tendency to cluster together.

7. QCD involves the interactions of particles.

8. When in isolation, neutrinos are unstable.

9. Electrons bind together into more complex and lasting objects.

10. Neutrons can bind with each other.

Exercise 7. Match the word in the left column with its synonym out of four given in the right column.

abundant	huge, plentiful, unstable, tight
annihilate	forecast, eliminate, create, involve
completely	entirely, tightly, obviously, hopefully
complicated	unstable ,immense, complex, easy,
immense	obvious, huge, complex, creative
involve	refer to, annihilate, notice, last
observe	enter, speculate, bind, notice,
origin	ending, prediction, reason, beginning
prediction	complexion, isolation, property, forecasting,
reason	ground, speculation, prediction, motivation
universe	macrocosm, ground, diversity, tightness

Exercise 8. Complete the following sentences with the words according to the text.

The _______ of the particles of each type in the present _______ is the result of a _______ history. Most of the particle types that were _______ in the early universe have long ago _______. We only observe them when they are produced _______ in laboratories, and then _______ or _______.

In the present universe, _______ and electrons have _______ that allow them to form the _______ _______ clusters that we call nuclei and atoms. Photons and neutrinos cannot do this, and so exist much more _______ throughout the universe.

_______, most of the universe we know is made of quarks and electrons. Of the two, quarks have a greater _______ to cluster together.

The reasons why quarks _______ clustering in this way are not _______ understood. There is a general theory, known as quantum chromodynamics (QCD) that _______ to describe how quarks _______. QCD _______ the interactions of fields _______ with quarks and fields associated with another type of particle called _______. Most physicists believe that when the _______ of this theory are better understood, we will know why quarks cluster as they do.

Ever since the first microsecond after the origin of the universe, quarks have been_______ together, in groups of three, into neutrons or protons. All of the other _______ of quarks or the other quark types, which also can bind together, are _______ under present conditions.

Exercise 9. Match the word with its definition.

1. annihilate	a. to stick together in a mass
2. associate	b. to form a small group in a place, to be grouped together
3. attempt	c. to make a problem or situation more difficult
4. bind	d. to destroy something or someone completely
5. briefly	e. extremely large, enormous
6. cluster	f. a very small part of something, which is smaller than an atom
7. complicate	g. likely to change suddenly and become worse
8. decay	h. to be slowly destroyed by a natural chemical process, or to make something do this
9. immense	i. spread through it, especially when this is difficult
10. insist	j. in as few words as possible:
11. quark	k. steady and not likely to move or change
12.unstable	l. to demand that something should happen
	m. to make a connection in your mind between one thing or person and another
	n. an act of trying to do something, especially something difficult

Exercise 10. Find missing forms.

noun	verb	adjective	adverb
	annihilate	—	—
	insist	—
	—	stable
		complicated	—
association			—
	—	steady

Exercise 11. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. 1. Оператори народження й знищення визначаються з певними комутаційними властивостями, різними для ферміонів та бозонів. 2. Це буде вже третя спроба провести експеримент, сподіваємось, що цього разу все буде гаразд. 3. Носіями заряду бувають стабільні і нестабільні частинки. Серед найстабільніших частинок електрон має одиничний негативний заряд, протон – одиничний позитивний заряд. 4. Заряд ядер атомів визначається кількістю протонів у них. 5. D-мезони – це найлегші частинки, що містять c-кварк. Вони групуються в мультиплети по три частинки: де-мінус-мезон D⁻, де-нуль-мезон D⁰, де-плюс-мезон D⁺ 6. Енергія зв’язку – це мінімальна енергія, необхідна для роз’єднання ядра на окремі нуклони.

2. Основною характеристикою елементарної частинки, що надає їй здатність до сильної взаємодії, у рамках квантової хромодинаміки є кольоровий заряд. Усього існує три типи кольорових зарядів, які умовно називають червоним, зеленим і синім, і три типи кольорових антизарядів: античервоний, антизелений і антисиній. Усі ці назви конвенційні. Вони жодним чином не відповідають реальним кольорам, які люди бачать у повсякденному житті. Кольорові заряди мають два типи елементарних частинок: кварки і глюони. Кожен кварк може бути червоним, зеленим або синім, антикварк, відповідно, античервоним, антизеленим і антисинім. Глюони мають водночас колір і антиколір, зазвичай різні, наприклад червоний-антизелений глюон. Ця властивість дозволяє їм бути посередниками при взаємодії. Наприклад, червоний кварк при взаємодії може випромінити червоний-антизелений віртуальний глюон. При цьому він сам стає зеленим. Інший кварк, зелений, поглинає цей червоний-антизелений глюон і стає червоним. Таким чином, через обмін віртуальними глюонами здійснюється сильна взаємодія.

TEXT 2