II. Reading

Text 1.

Laws and Customs

The English word “law’’ refers to limits upon various forms of behavior. Some laws are descriptive: they simply describe how people usually behave. Other laws are prescriptive - they prescribe how people ought to behave.

In all societies, relations between people are regulated by prescriptive laws. Some of them are customs, informal rules of social and moral behavior.

Customs are not made by governments, and they are not written down. The ways in which people talk, eat and drink, work, and relax together are usually called customs.

Members of every community have made laws for self-protection. In the absence of law you could only rely upon the law of jungle.

Every country tries, therefore, to provide laws, which will help its people to live safely and comfortably. This is not at all an easy thing to do. No country has been successful in producing laws, which are entirely satisfactory. But the imperfect laws are better than none.

Task 1. Read the text again to decide whether these statements are true or false. Give reasons.

1. Government usually establishes customs.

2. Some laws prescribe how people ought to talk, eat, work and relax.

3. There cannot be perfect laws.

4. Laws are very important for self-protection.

5. Every country has been successful in producing perfect laws.

Task 2. Circle a), b), or c) to answer the question

1. What is the main function of law?

a) to protect our life;

b) to protect our property;

c) to protect our reputation

2.What restricts speed limit?

a) police instruction;

b) prescriptive laws;

c) driver’s conscience

3.What threatens a person who continually breaks the rules?

1. a strict penalty;

2. severe criticism and isolation;

3. indifference

4. What should we do in the absence of law?

a) we should be happy;

b) we should rely on our friends;

c) we should rely on the law of jungle

5. What law can be characterized as a perfect one?

a) there can’t be perfect laws;

b) the law which preserves life;

c) the law which protects private property.

Text 2.

Aims of Law

Law has several aims. They are concerned with making society more stable. The Law forbids certain ways of behaving like murder, blackmail, etc. and requires others, like paying taxes. Laws guarantee to people that the state will, if necessary, enforce sanctions.

One more aim is to settle disputes about what the law is and whether it has been broken. Taking these three aims together, we see that law not only threatens and punishes those who do what it forbids but promises to protect people’s interests. It imposes restrictions on people but also gives them certain guarantees.

Task 1. Answer the questions.

1.What are the aims of law concerned with?

2.What does the law forbid?

3.In what cases does the law impose restrictions on people?

4.What functions does the law serve?

Text 3.

Systems of Law

Every independent country has its own legal system. But most systems can he classed as either a common-law system or a civil-law system. Australia, Ireland, New Zealand, Great Britain (except Scotland), The United States, and other English speaking countries have a common-law system. Most other countries have a civil-law system. Some countries combine features of both systems.

Common-law systems are based largely on case law - that is, on court decisions.

English common law developed from the rules and principles that judges traditionally followed in deciding court cases. Judges base their decisions on legal precedents - that is, on earlier court rulings in similar cases. The common law is law made by judges.

Civil-law systems are based mainly on statutes (legislative acts). The majority of civil-law countries have assembled their statues into carefully organized collections called codes.

In civil law countries, such as France, Germany, Mexico, etc. the statutes, not the courts, provide the final answer to any question of law. Judges must base every decision on a particular statute and not on precedent alone.

Many countries such as Japan and most Latin-American Nations, have patterned their legal systems after both civil law and common law.