2. To be read after Unit 9 The importance of learning foreign languages

While some analysts say that English is becoming the international language of business and society, there’s never been a better time to learn a foreign language such as German, French or Japanese. Though such languages may not be quite as widespread as English, they offer rich sets of linguistics and innuendos not found in any dialect of English. The reasons for learning a new language are varied, but the importance of learning fo-reign languages is universal: it will always benefit you in one way or another.

First and foremost, one of the most important reasons to learn a foreign language is the stimulation it offers your mind. Like a young child grappling with language for the very first time, you find yourself lusting for knowledge and oozing curiosity at every turn. The familiar becomes fascinating, and your mind is opened to new ways of approaching even the simplest areas of life. According to three studies by Bruck, Lambert, Tucker (1974), Hakuta (1986) and Weatherford (1986), children enrolled in foreign language courses demonstrate stronger cognitive skills, particularly in the area of creativity. An added bonus: those with competency (not necessarily fluency) in more than one language tend to have higher intelligence scores on standardized tests.

Foreign languages are also important to those working in business, communications and nearly every other career track. Even if your potential clientele speak English, there isn’t a better way to understand their needs and cultural desires than to learn their language. It helps make a great first impression, and it shows that you are willing to go above and beyond to maintain the relationship. In many cultures, attempting to speak the language is viewed as a sign of respect and has the potential to open doors in the future.

Of course, there are also the aesthetic reasons for learning a new language. It is fun to pronounce words with nasal resonances and tongue rolling, features not present in most English conversations. Some languages have certain social connotations that invoke feelings when heard or spoken. When sampling a particular culture such as German – it helps to understand how to pronounce words when ordering a warm streusel or asking for the way to the autobahn. This feeling of competency and control can alleviate much of the stress of traveling, making your vacation to Bavaria all the more restful and/or enjoyable.

Regardless of the reasons why you would like to learn a new language, you should always allow yourself to explore new linguistic territories. Learning multiple languages will always serve to enhance your quality of life, and even if you never use that language in practical circumstances, you almost certainly will enjoy the time spent educating yourself. Language learning is unique in that you rarely have to spend much money to find a passionate instructor or fellow learner, and the adventure of understanding a new tongue is one experience you will not soon forget.

To be read after Unit 10

Text 1. Canada

Canada has an area of nearly ten million square kilometres. Its western coast is washed by the Pacific Ocean and its eastern coast by the Atlantic Ocean. There are many islands in the north of Canada.

Canada has mountains, high plains and low plains. The Rocky Mountains run parallel to the Pacific coast. East of these mountains are the high plains. The low plains lie in the region of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. There are also mountains which run parallel to Canada’s east coast, in Labrador and Baffin Island.

Canada is a country of lakes. Besides the Great Lakes – Lakes Superior, Huron, Erie and Ontario (the fifth Great Lake, Michigan, lies in the USA), there are many other very large lakes, for example, Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake and Lake Winnipeg.

Canada also has large rivers: the Mackenzie flows from the Rocky Mountains into the Arctic Ocean, the Yukon rises in Canada and flows into the Pacific, the St. Lawrence River flows into the Atlantic Ocean.

The Niagara Falls are one of the most splendid sights in the world. Since the building of the St. Lawrence Seaway the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River form a great water-way from the Atlantic to the heart of the country.

Canada has several climatic regions. Winter in Canada lasts from four to five months with heavy snowfalls. There is much rain in the east and west, but less in the centre.

The north of the country near the Arctic is tundra with great forests to the south. The central plains form the prairies.

The population of Canada is about 32 million people. In the country there are many Indians and Eskimos, who live mostly in the North. Today more than 40 per cent of the people of Canada came originally from Britain, about 30 per cent from France and 20 per cent from other countries. So there are two state languages: English and French. English is spoken by 60 % of population; French is spoken by 23 % of people.

The name Canada is derived from an Iroquoian term meaning «village».

The capital of Canada is Ottawa. Other large important cities are Montreal, Toronto, Vancouver. Edmonton, Hamilton, Winnipeg and Quebec.

Canada is rich in metal ores, oil and gas, and the metal, machine-building, motor-car and ship-building industries are highly developed.

The hydro-electric industry is highly developed, its main centres are in the provinces of Quebec and Ontario. There is a very large hydro-electric station at the Niagara Falls.

Canada’s main agricultural products are wheat, meat, some kinds of fruit, especially apples, and dairy products.

The provinces of Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia, with their great forests, produce wood for paper-making and building.

Many of the lakes and rivers are polluted today and few of them have fish now. But Canada's fishing industry is still important on both the Pacific and Atlantic coasts. Canada’s largest ports are Vancouver, Montreal and Halifax.

The capital of Canada is Ottawa. Canada became independent from the United Kingdom on July, 1, 1867. Legal system is based on the English common law, except in Quebec, where civil law system based on the French law prevails.

The government type is confederation with parliamentary democracy. Canada is a member of the Commonwealth. Formally the head of the state is the King or Queen of England represented by the Governor-General.

Canada consists of ten provinces and two territories. Each province has its own government.

The Federal Parliament consists of the Senate, whose members are appointed by the Governor-General, and the House of Commons, elected by the people for a period of five years.

There are several political parties which are represented in Parliament: The Progressive Conservative Party, the Liberal Party and the New Democratic Party.

It`s true that the majority of travelers are attracted by the opportunity to explore Canada`s wilderness areas, natural wonders and rural charm, there is a lot more to Canada than maple trees, Niagara Falls and wide open spaces.

Text 2. The Commonwealth of Australia

The Commonwealth of Australia is a self-governing federal state. It has six states: New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania and two internal territories.

It is situated in the south-west part of the Pacific Ocean. The area of this country is 7 687 000 square kilometres. Australia is the largest island in the world and it is the smallest continent. The Dutch were the first Europeans to visit Australia. In 1770 the English captain James Cook discovered the east coast of Australia.

Nearly 20 million people live in Australia. The capital of the country is Canberra. The city became the capital in 1927. Federal Government works in Canberra in the government buildings. It is interesting to know that there are no industrial plants in Canberra. The population of Canberra is about 300 000 people.

There are many things to see in the city. They are the building of the Australian Academy of Sciences, the Australian National University and others.

There are two big industrial cities in Australia: Sydney and Melbourne.

Australia’s climate is dry and warm. Australia is situated in the sou-thern hemisphere and that’s why they have their summer, when we have our winter and they have their winter, when we have our summer. It is interesting to know that January is the hottest month in Australia.

Australia differs from other countries. The animals in Australia are very original and interesting. The dingo is one of Australia’s wild animals. It is reddish, brown or yellow. The dingo is a wild dog, which kills other animals at night, for example sheep. They can kill hens, chickens and small dogs. Kangaroos live there. The kangaroo has got a pouch in which she carries her babies. There are many birds in the country, too. You can see parrots and cockatoos. The emu is the most interesting bird in Australia. It is big and can’t fly.

There are many rivers and lakes in this country. The Murray and the Darling are the main rivers.

Australia is an industrial country. It has coal, nickel, zinc and gold. There are several factories and plants in the country. Australia is one of the most important producers of metals and minerals.

Agriculture is the main occupation in Australia. Wheat is grown in the south and in the grassland region. Australia exports wool products, meat, fruit and sugar.

The country is surrounded by the ocean. Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane are the country’s ports. There are many universities, theatres and museums in Australia.

The Commonwealth of Australia is a self-governing federal state and a member of the Commonwealth (of Nations). Formally the head of the state is the King or Queen of England represented by the Governor-General. Australia has a parliament in each state and the Federal Parliament of the Commonwealth at Canberra. The Federal Parliament consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The federal government of the country is headed by the Prime Minister.

There are several political parties in Australia: the Liberal Party, the Labour Party and the Socialist Party of Australia. Australia has the same head of state as the United Kingdom.

This country is very picturesque.

Text 3. The strange world of australian animals

Australia has been called «the land of differences» and «the continent of contrasts». It certainly is both. There are many ways in which it is different from other countries.

Early in the world’s history Australia was separated from the other continents and her animals have developed differently from theirs. Of these, the strangest of all are the water-loving platypus and the echidna. The appearance of the platypus is so unusual that when the skin of one was first sent to England some scientists said that no such animal could possibly exist.

Australia is also the home of the kangaroos. The koala is a tree-loving, comical-looking animal, that lives on the leaves of eucalyptus trees. It will eat nothing more. It usually sleeps during the day.

The dingo, or wild dog, is the only killer among the native animals. You can meet dingoes in many parts of Australia, but most of them now live in mountains or hills. In some places they were a very great danger to sheep and many of them have been killed for that reason.

The native birds of Australia are very interesting. The emu, for example, which, with the kangaroo, is represented on the Australian coat- of-arms, is the next-tallest bird in the world after the ostrich.

Text 4. New Zealand

What is the name of the country which has volcanoes and rivers of ice, deer and sea-elephants? It is New Zealand, called the Land of the Long White Cloud by the Maoris.

It is an island country. It is made up of three islands: the North and South Islands and Steward Island.

New Zealand is an independent state. It has got a total area of 269 000 square kilometres. It is situated to the southeast of Australia. Nearly 3.5 million people live in the country. The capital of New Zealand is Wellington. It has been the capital since 1865. The official language is English.

The climate of New Zealand is wet. There are many mountains in New Zealand. The highest is Mount Cook (12 349 feet). There are many rivers and lakes in the country. The chief rivers are the Waikato and the Wairu.

New Zealand is rich in minerals. There are some important industries in the country, for example, the iron and steel industry. The country has gas and petroleum.

What do the people do? Farm mostly. New Zealand’s climate with rainfalls all year round, is very favourable for diarying, sheep-farming and cattle-farming, as well as growing fruit, vegetables and flowers. Dairy products, meat and wool are the main exports. Also New Zealand exports apples and honey.

You have heard of the country’s native animals. One of them is the kiwi. This interesting bird lives in the wet areas of the thick bush. In the day time the bird does not go out. It comes out only at night to find food. Kiwis cannot fly. Many years ago kiwis were hunted for food. Now the government does not permit the hunting of kiwis. Now the kiwi is the symbol of the New Zealand people. Small children are often called kiwis.

New Zealand has heavy industry. There are many plants in the country. The paper and rubber industries are developed too.

There are several big cities such as Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin and Nelson. Auckland, Dunedin and Wellington are the country’s main ports. Wellington, the capital of the country, is a financial centre too. The city was founded in 1840.

There are several educational and cultural institutions in Wellington. They are the University of New Zealand, Victoria University College and others. Victoria University was established in 1897.

New Zealand is a self-governing state and a member of the Commonwealth. The Governor-General represents the King or Queen of England. The Parliament consists of one House only, the House of Representatives. The Prime Minister is the head of the government. There are several political parties in New Zealand. They are: the Labour Party, the National Party, the Party of Socialist Unity and others.

New Zealand is a very interesting and beautiful country.

Text 5. London, the capital of Great Britain

London is the capital of England, the capital of Great Britain, and the capital of the United Kingdom. It is the largest сity in Europe and one of the oldest cities in the world. The old Celts gave it its name, the Romans made it the centre of their new colony, the Germanic invaders tried to burn and to destroy it, the victorious Normans made it the capital of the country.

The central part of London is full of historical remains. Nearly every building, every bridge, every street, palace, house, and stone – each of them has its own story, its own past. In London past and present are so mixed together that they cannot easily be separated and when you are in London you see the past in the present and the present in the past.

The oldest part of London is called the City. In the City the streets and pavements are very narrow and the traffic is very heavy on weekdays. That is because the most important London firms and banks have offices there. But at weekends the City is almost dead.

The most fashionable and the most expensive part to live in is the West End. It is situated between the City and Hyde Park. The City and the West End are the heart of London; they are the parts which everybody who comes to London must see and, because they are more interesting than any other part of London. All the most interesting buildings, shops and offices are situated here.

The Tower of London, the Bank of England, the Mansion House where the Lord Mayor lives, the Law Courts, and many interesting old churches are situated in the City. The Houses of Parliament with Big Ben, Westminster Abbey, the National Gallery and many theatres and good shops are in the West End.

London has many bridges over the Thames, more than twenty, but the most interesting of them all is the Tower Bridge situated near the Tower of London.

The Tower of London is an old castle, with high walls, high towers, small windows and large gardens. Once it was a royal residence, a strong fortress and a state prison. Here many important people, among them two wives of Henry VIII, were imprisoned and beheaded.

One of the oldest and the most famous places of London is St. Paul’s Cathedral. It has been destroyed and rebuilt several times since the original construction in the 7th century. It stands in the centre of the so-called Little Britain. A large part of Little Britain was destroyed during the war; the houses that were close to the Cathedral’s walls disappeared and for the first time in centuries St. Paul's Cathedral's beauty can be seen.

This wonderful city is worth seeing.

Text 6. The British Museum

The British Museum is situated in Central London (Bloomsbury district). It was founded by the Act of Parliament in 1753. The present buil-ding was built in 1852. The British Museum comprises the National Museum of Antiquities and Ethnography, the National Library and the Department of Prints and Drawings. It is one of the most extensive and valuable museums in West Europe.

The British Museum Library was founded in 1793. Before it had 6 reading rooms and 670 desks for readers. Now the library of the British Museum is in a new building. By law a copy of every book, periodical or newspaper published in Britain must be preserved in the British Museum. There are over 7 million of volumes in the library today.

The British Museum is closely connected with the name of an Italian lawyer Anthony Panizzi. He occupied the position of principal librarian in the British Museum. He also designed the famous circular Reading Room in the British Museum.

The Reading Room has the form of a perfect circle. The superintendent and his assistants sit in the center of the room, issue and collect books. Long rows of reading desks radiate to the outer walls, like the spokes of the wheel. The catalogues are kept behind them.

Visitors to the Museum who want to enter the Reading Room must have a ticket of admission. Only people at the age of 21, engaged in serious study and who cannot obtain books they require elsewhere, can use the Reading Room. Any person who comes into the Reading Room is greatly impressed by the efficiency of the staff there. You just ask for a book and in a moment it is placed in front of you.

The British Museum contains books and manuscripts: Greek, Roman, British and oriental antiquities. The British Museum has the Department of Ethnography. Ethnography is concerned with primitive people and their cultures in various stages of development as it is revealed by their tools, ritual objects and various crafts. This collection is so vast that only a very small percentage is on show to general public.

Then the British Museum also has the Department of Prints and Drawings. There are departments devoted to maps, coins, medals. Those who are interested in philately can find a magnificent collection of postage stamps. Visitors interested in chronology can see a large collection of clocks and watches. Every year the British Museum is visited by 2 million people.

On one of the houses in Bloomsbury (London) there is a plaque which tells people that for nearly 50 years this was the home of Sir Hans Sloane, the benefactor of the British Museum. Sir Hans Sloane was an Irishman. He arrived in London nearly 300 years ago with 800 species of plants collected in West India. His particular specialities were natural history specimens and books. All his life Sir Hans Sloane remained a collector. In his will he offered his vast collection to the people of Britain. Later on the Government bought his collection.

Text 7. New York

In 1607 Captain Henry Hudson left Europe to search for the famous North-West Passage. He didn’t find it, because it didn’t exist, but he reached a river to which he gave his name. Interested by the stories told them by the captain on his return, the Dutch sent other boats to take possession of the land discovered by Hudson and gave it the name «New Netherland». Two men dominate the history of this colony. The first bought the island of Manhattan from the Indians in 1626. The second arrived in 1647 as governor of New Amsterdam, the capital of New Netherland.

In 1664 this territory was taken over by the English and they changed the name of New Amsterdam to New York.

New York is one of the largest cities in the world. Its population is over 11 million people. New York is an industrial and cultural centre of the country. Most business is centred in Manhattan Island. The whole area is very small, that’s why the skyscrapers were invented in New York and, especially, in Wall Street. Wall Street is a narrow street with big houses, but it is well known all over the world as the busiest street in the USA. People do business there.

There are two more world-famous streets – Broadway and Fifth Avenue. Broadway is the centre of the theatres and night life. It is known as «The Great White Way» because of the electric signs which turn night into day. It is the city that never goes to sleep. Buses and subway run all night. There are many drugstores and restaurants which never close their doors. There are cinemas with films that start at midnight.

Fifth Avenue is the great shopping, hotel, and club avenue. If you go along this avenue, you come to Harlem, where the black people of New York live, the coloured workers, teachers, doctors and musicians.

New York is the largest port in America. More than half the trade of the United States goes through this city.

There are many places of interest in New York. They are: the Statue of Liberty, the United Nations Building, Empire State Building, Columbia University, City Hall, New York Public Library and others.

Text 8. Washington, D.C., the capital of the usa

The United States is a federal union which is made up of fifty states and one independent district – the District of Columbia (D.C.). The District of Columbia is the territory of the national capital of the USA, Washington, with its own laws and regulations. Washington, D.C. is situated on the both banks of the Potomac River, between the two states, Maryland and Virginia.

The first American President George Washington chose this place. The plot of land of a hundred square miles was bought from private owners by the state. In 1791 George Washington laid the cornerstone of the Capitol where the U.S. Congress sits. The place was called the District of Columbia in honour of Columbus, the discoverer of America. The capital got the name of Washington after the name of its founder. Washington, D.C. has been the federal capital since 1800.

The Capitol Building is one of the most impressive buildings in Wa-shington and is easy to recognize because of its large dome. The Capitol Building dome is the fourth largest dome in the world, rising 180 feet (55 m) above the floor. Around the large dome, there are 36 marble columns, each representing the 36 states in the Union when the dome was built. Above these columns, there is another set of 13 columns that represent the 13 original states.

The flag flying over the entrance to the Capitol is one of several flags authorized by Act of Congress to remain raised after sundown. This flag flies 24 hours a day because the sun never sets on American possessions.

Washington, D.C. is sometimes called the heart of America. It is the place where the federal government works and where each President of the United States lives.

The White House is the official residence of the president of the United States of America situated in Washington, D.C. The White House was the first public building which was built in the capital of the USA. Its cornerstone was laid in 1792. The White House stands in tree-shaded grounds (18 acres ≈ 72.8 hectares) on the south side of Pennsylvania Avenue. The main building has 6 floors, with the East Terrace leading to the East Wing, a 3-story building used for offices and as an entrance for official events. The West Terrace contains offices and leads to the Executive Office.

The White House has 132 rooms and 20 bathrooms. The President and his family live on upper floors. The public can visit the White House and see several of the famous rooms such as the State Dining Room, the Blue Room and the Red Room.

In 1800 President John Adams3 and his wife moved into the building. At the beginning of the 19th century it was a light-grey structure made of sandstone. The construction of the building had not been completed by that time. There were almost no conveniences in the house. There were no bathrooms and water was carried by hand into the house from a spring which was five blocks away.

Work continued on the structure when Thomas Jefferson was elected the president. The President^,s home was the earliest of all government buildings in the District of Columbia. Compared to the huge, glittering palaces used by European and Asian rulers at the time it was built, the White House is a simple, almost unpretentious dwelling place.

On August 24, 1814 during the presidency of Madison the British troops entered Washington and set fire to the White House. It was during the Anglo-American war (1812-1814). The interior was reduced to ashes, part of the outer walls were destroyed and the remaining walls were blackened. Later the building was reconstructed and reopened in 1818. Its light-grey sandstone exterior was painted white to cover the effects of the fire. It has been white ever since. Some people think it was from its white walls that the home of the president of the USA got its name. Other people believe that it got its name earlier, when it was still grey. Even then its grey sandstone walls looked white next to the red brick walls of other public buildings. Nevertheless the president's home was officially named the White House in 1902.

In planning the new federal city, Pierre Charles L,Enfant placed the Congress House (Capitol Building) and the President’s Palace (White House) at opposite ends of Pennsylvania Avenue as physical symbols of the separation of the legislative and executive branches of government.

Washington, D.C. is smaller in size than the largest cities of the USA such as New York, Chicago, Detroit or Los Angeles. The buildings in Washington, D.C. are not high because no building must be higher than the Capitol. But in political sense Washington, D.C. is the centre of the country and the most important city of the United States.

The population of Washington, D.C. is about one million people.

To be read after Unit 11

Ecological situation in Russia

The analysis of ecological situation in Russia show that the crisis tendencies which appeared in the latest 15 years don’t get over and in several aspects becomes deeper inspire of the taken measures.

Russia with its saved huge tracts of forest (almost 65% of the total area of the country) has a very important meaning for ecodynamics. Together with some adjacent areas this massif forms The North Eurasian center of environmental stabilization which is the largest in the world and which importance for biosphere’s reconstruction will increase.

However 15% of the territory of Russia on which the main part of the population and industry is concentrated has unsatisfactory ecological condition and ecological safety is not guaranteed here. At that the specific indexes of the negative effects on the environment on the expectation of one person and units of gross domestic product in Russia are one of the highest in the world.

The excess of the allowed concentrations of the detrimental impurities is in the atmospheric air of 185 cities and industrial centres with the population of more than 61 million people (40% of the whole population of the country). The main sources of air pollution are still enterprises of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemistry and petrochemical industry, construction industry, power engineering, pulp and paper industry and motor transport.

The most unfavorable situation is in Arkhangelsk, Lipetsk, Moscow, Norilsk, Bratsk, Ekaterinburg, Kamensk-Uralskii, Kemerovo, Krasnoyarsk, Nizhny Tagil, Ufa, Sterlitomak, Chelyabinsk, Magnitogorsk, Novokuznetsk, Omsk, Cherepovets.

Subjective tests show that the percentage of the influence of the air pollution to the general children’s morbidity is 17%, grown up’s morbidity – 10% on average. Air pollution causes 41% of breathing organs illness, 16% of endocrine system illness, 2,5% of oncological illness.

Not only local sources of detrimental impurities influence greatly on forest on lake’s ecosystems and agroculture but remote sources including foreign ones also have strong influence on it. More than 1 mln. tones of oxygenated sulfur of transorganical origin fall to the European part of Russia every year which is more than from the Russian sources of pollution. Essential contribution into Russian’s environmental pollution by oxyge-nated sulfur and nitrogen make Ukraine, Poland and Germany.

The quality of water in the most Russian water objects doesn’t meet health and fishing requirements because almost 40% of jettisonable into them sewages are concidered to be polluted. Almost half of the population of the country has to use water that doesn’t correspond health requirements because of bad water treatment and unsatisfactory condition of utility. The quality of drinkable water hasn’t become better.

The execution of water-purifying measures is carried out in the inadequate way because of the unstable work of the majority of the enterprises, their hard financial condition, insufficiency of budgetary funds.

The ecological condition of the agrocultural lands remains also unsatisfactory, the tendency of the lands degradation still exists. 43% of arable land decreases in its containing of humus and in the Nechernozemnaya zona the area of such soils is about 45 %. The lands with radiation pollution do not shorten.

Great damage to the condition of the vegetation world is made by uncontrolled storing of berries, mushrooms, valuable species of medicinal plants. The damage made by forest’s vermines and sicknesses, fires and illegal cutting of the forests is also great. Every year more than 300 thousands of afforestation dies of these reasons.

However we can point to some positive tendencies in the changing of the quantity of hunting animals. The process of stabilization and the upgrowth of the mammals which are considered to be hunting objects such as elk, wild boar and roe can be explained by the effectiveness of the fight against poaching, improvement of the condition of forage reserve of the hunting animals. Though the prognosis of the quantity of the sturgeon is not favorable and strict measures should be applied to the poaching.

Still the problems of the industrial and common wastes recycling, chemical nuclear and biological weapon destruction are very actual. There is a threat of the import of dangerous wastes to Russia. The serious danger comes from physically and moral outdated depositories of liquid radiation wastes and worked-out nuclear fuel, revealed atomic submarines. The high scale of deterioration of technological equipment on the chemical, petrochemical and microbiological enterprises leads to man-caused damages with further chemical infection of the territory.

The ecological condition of the country is characterized in details in annual state reports on the environmental condition in Russian Federation which are issued and are available to the consumers.

To be read after Unit 12

How the globalization influences my life

Today’s world is changing rapidly because people want it to be better for them. At the same time the opinion of a single person does not play a big role nowadays. Very often we have to accept different processes which take place on the Earth even if we don’t like them because the majority of people want them to be. There are not changes which are good for everyone. One of the most arguable processes is globalization. At a glance, the globalization can solve all our economic and social problems at a blow. As a matter of fact, globalization hurts some people. To avoid jumping in conclusions about globalization we should make out how it influences the life of a single person, for example me. First, globalization gives me an opportunity to be closer to my relatives and friends. In our big country it is very important.

For instance, I can wish my friends happy new year using the internet, wherever they are. We can ask each other for help, cheer each other up if we have any problems. On the other hand, since I got the Internet I have had less communication personally with people. I have forgotten how to give a hearty welcome to my friends. Furthermore, it had been much easier for me to reach an understanding with any person before I got the computer than today. Second, globalization helps me in education at all points. I suppose I have never had such a good chance to be well-educated as in the era of globalization. If I lived thirty years ago I would not be able to participate in international education programs and competitions, to have practice in specialization abroad, to apply to my foreign colleague for advice through the Internet. All this things are so common today that I can’t imagine my life without them.

The Internet makes my studying at the University easier. But I have noticed that sometimes I forget the proverb «A cat in gloves catches no mice» and rely on the internet too much. But it’s not a big problem. We should just remember that if we wanted other people to make our work instead of us we would have no chance to achieve our aim. Third, globalization gives me freedom. I choose everything myself: my living place, a place for holidays, and the country which produces the products I consume. This fact gives us more opportunities to develop ourselves in any direction we want. Using the experience of the specialists all over the world I can become a good professional. So, in the era of globalization I can make a very good career. But globalization means competition as well. There are a lot of people who want to achieve the same aims as I want. Unfortunately, the number of places under the sun is limited. This fact means that it may be difficult even for a good specialist to find the work he or she likes. So, globalization is very ambivalent process. If we rely on the advantages on globalization too much, there are several negative aspects of this process.

To be read after Unit 13

Text 1. The International Olympic Committee

The International Olympic Committee (IOC) is a Swiss non-profit, non-governmental organization based in Lausanne, Switzerland, created by Pierre, Baron de Coubertin, on 23 June 1894 with Greek Demetrios Vikelas as its first president. Today its membership consists of 100 active members, 33 honorary members, and 1 honour member.

The motto of the IOC is Faster, Higher, Stronger (Citius, Altius, Fortius). The IOC organizes the modern Olympic Games and Youth Olympic Games, held in Summer and Winter, every four years. The first Summer Olympics organized by the International Olympic Committee were held in Athens, Greece, in 1896; the first Winter Olympics were in Chamonix, France, in 1924.

The IOC has the type of sport federation.

Membership: 105 active members, 32 honorary members. The Official languages are French, English and host country's official language when necessary.

Mission and role of the IOC

Encourage and support the promotion of ethics and good governance in sport as well as education of youth through sport and to dedicate its efforts to ensuring that, in sport, the spirit of fair play prevails and violence is banned:

Encourage and support the organization, development and coordination of sport and sports competitions.

Ensure the regular celebration of the Olympic Games.

Cooperate with the competent public or private organizations and authorities in the endeavor to place sport at the service of humanity and thereby to promote peace.

Take action in order to strengthen the unity, to protect the indepen-dence of the Olympic Movement, and to preserve the autonomy of sport.

Act against any form of discrimination affecting the Olympic Movement.

Encourage and support the promotion of women in sport at all levels and in all structures with a view to implementing the principle of equality of men and women.

Lead the fight against doping in sporting.

Encourage and support measures protecting the health of athletes.

Oppose any political or commercial abuse of sport and athletes.

Encourage and support the efforts of sports organizations and public authorities to provide for the social and professional future of athletes.

Encourage and support the development of sport for all.

Encourage and support a responsible concern for environmental issues, to promote sustainable development in sport and to require that the Olympic Games are held accordingly.

Promote a positive legacy from the Olympic Games to the host cities and host countries.

Encourage and support initiatives blending sport with culture and education.

Encourage and support the activities of the International Olympic Academy (IOA) and other institutions which dedicate themselves to Olympic education.

Financing of the IOC

The only source of funding for the IOC – is the private sector. Most of the funding comes from television companies and sponsors. Thanks to these partners, the IOC may greatly help to organize the Olympic Games, yearly activities of the national Olympic committees and international sports delegations.

Text 2. Sony

Sony is multinational conglomerate corporation headquartered in Mintao, Japan. It is one of leading manufacturers of electronics, video, communications, video game consoles and information technology products for the consumer and professional market.

Sony is among the Worldwide Top 20 Semiconductor Sales Leaders. The company's slogan is «Sony. Like no other; and recent is make believe». Sony is the electronics business unit and the parent company of the Sony Group which is engaged in business through its five operating segments, these make Sony one of the most comprehensive entertainment companies in the world.

Sony’s principal business operations include:

- Sony Corporation;

- Sony Pictures Entertainment;

- Sony Computer Entertainment;

- Sony BMG Music Entertainment;

- Sony Ericsson;

- Sony Financial Holdings.

The name «Sony» was chosen for the brand as a mix of two words. One was the Latin word Sonus, which is the root of «sonic» and «sound» and the other, was «sonny», a familiar term used in 1950s America to call a boy. Morita pushed for a word that does not exist in any language so that they could claim the word «Sony» as their own.

Mission:

- Sony is working to create value for our stake holders, and improve the quality of life for the next generation through our innovations.

Vision:

- We must seek new approaches to transform our ability to achieve both profitable and sustainable growth.

Sony Corporation was founded by Masaru Ibuka and Akio Morita in 1946.

The main facts of Sony’s History:

May 1946 Tokyo – Tsushin Kogyo K.K. (Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation), also known as Totsuko, established in Nihonbashi;

1947 – Company head office and factory relocated to Shinagawa, Tokyo;

1950 – Japan's first magnetic tape recorder, the G-Type, order launched;

1954 – Announcement of Japan's first PNP alloy-type transistor and germanium diode;

1955 – Decision made to use SONY logo on Totsuko products. Japan's first transistor radio, the TR-55launched;

1958 – Company name changed to Sony Corporation;

1960 – Sony Corporation of America (SONAM) established in the United States. World's first direct-view portable TV, the TV8-301, launched. Sony Overseas S.A. established near Zurich, Switzerland;

1962 – The world’s smallest and lightest all-transistor TV, TV5-303, launched;

1963 – World’s first compact transistor VTR, the PV-100, launched;

1966 – Sales launch of Sony’s first cassette tape recorder, the «Magazine-matic 100» TC-1001979-Sales launch of the TPS-L2, the first stereo cassette player «Walkman»;

1982 – World’s first CD player, the CDP-101, launched;

1989 – Compact and lightweight passport-sized 8 mm camcorder, «Handycam» CCD-TR55, launched;

1994 – New company structure introduced at Sony Corporation;

2005 – Sales launch of new «BRAVIA» brand HDTV-compatible flat-screen TVs;

2007 – World’s first OLED TV released;

2010 – Sony introduces Sony Internet TV, powered by Google TV – the world's first television with Google TV platform. Sony introduces e-book reader. Sony launches new digital music service Music Unlimited powered by Qriocity.

Awards

21 Sony products were recognized with an iF Product Design Award.

Sony won Good Design Awards continuously from last 11 years for that different products.

third consecutive Gold Award for BRAVIA televisions and the second for a (alpha) E-mount series DSLRs.

The red dot Design Award is a worldwide design award given in recognition of superior product design and communication design. Design Zentrum Nordrheim Westfalen sponsors the red dot Design Award. Sony has won 16 «red dot» awards including 1 «best of the best».

Weakness:

Sony’s plants located in inconvenient locations;

Too expensive and far away from consumers;

High shipping and long deliver process;

This all effects Sony’s operating performance.

Opportunities:

Applied acquisition and alliances strategy;

Joint venture with Sharp and Hon Hai Precision Industry;

In order to provide LCD TV’s to American Region;

Focus on emerging market’s economies;

Sony has gained success in India Market;

Sony’s growth depends on performance in emerging markets.

Threats:

Unfavorable foreign exchange rate.

Sony’s international market sales value 75,8%.

Japan’s currency appreciated against US dollar and Euro.

Sony’s products more expensive; sales to drop.

Worsening economic situation.

Sony’s main markets are US, Japan, and Europe; all suffered economic downturn.

Laws and regulations.

Protect environment, human health, and safety.

Conclusion

Although other electronics firms are taking market shares and profits, the innovative spirit and quest of excellence and perfection cannot be copied.

Sony’s main task is to integrate its talent by placing common goals and priority for this increasing competitive market.

With strategy and luck, Sony could become a great firm as it was and will be.

Text 3. The World Wide Fund

For a Living Planet (Motto of WWF).

The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization working on issues regarding the conservation, research and restoration of the environment, formerly named the World Wildlife Fund, which remains its official name in Canada and the United States. It is the world’s largest independent conservation organization with over 5 million supporters worldwide, working in more than 100 countries, supporting around 1 300 conservation and environmental projects. WWF is a foundation, in 2010 deriving 57% of funding from individuals and bequests, 17% from government sources (such as the World Bank, DFID, USAID) and 11% from corporations.

History

The idea for a fund on behalf of endangered animals was initially proposed by Victor Stolan to Julian Huxley in response to articles he published in the Observer. This proposal led Julian Huxley to put Victor Stolan in contact with Max Nicholson, a person that had had thirty years experience of linking progressive intellectuals with big business interests through the Political and Economic Planning think tank. Max Nicholson thought up the name of the organization. WWF was conceived on 29 April 1961, under the name of World Wildlife Fund, and its first office was opened on 11 September that same year in Morges, Switzerland. Godfrey A. Rockefeller also played an important role in its creation, assembling the first staff. Its establishment marked with the signing of the founding document called Morges Manifesto that lays out the formulation ideas of its establishment.

The group says its mission is «to halt and reverse the destruction of our environment». Currently, much of its work focuses on the conservation of three biomes that contain most of the world's biodiversity: forests, freshwater ecosystems, oceans and coasts. Among other issues, it is also concerned with endangered species, pollution and climate change.

WWF has set up offices and operations around the world. It originally worked by fundraising and providing grants to existing non-governmental organizations, based on the best-available scientific knowledge and with an initial focus on the protection of endangered species. As more resources became available, its operations expanded into other areas such as the preservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of natural resources, the reduction of pollution, and climate change. The organization also began to run its own conservation projects and campaigns, and by the 1980s started to take a more strategic approach to its conservation activities.

In 1986, the organization changed its name to World Wide Fund for Nature, to better reflect the scope of its activities, retaining the WWF initials. However, it continues to operate under the original name in the United States and Canada.

That year was the 25th anniversary of WWF’s foundation, an event marked by a gathering in Assisi, Italy to which the organisation’s International President HRH Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh, invited religious authorities representing Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism. These leaders produced The Assisi Declarations, theological statements showing the spiritual relationship between their followers and nature that triggered a growth in the engagement of those religions with conservation around the world.

In the 1990s WWF revised its mission to: Stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature, by:

• conserving the world's biological diversity;

• ensuring that the use of renewable natural resources is sustainable;

• promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption.

WWF scientists and many others identified 238 ecoregions that represent the world's most biologically outstanding terrestrial, freshwater and marine habitats, based on a worldwide biodiversity analysis which the organization says was the first of its kind. In the early 2000s (decade), its work was focused on a subset of these ecoregions, in the areas of forest, freshwater and marine habitat conservation, endangered species conservation, climate change, and the elimination of the most toxic chemicals.

We shan't save all we should like to, but we shall save a great deal more than if we had never tried.

In 1996, the organization obtained general consultative status from UNESCO.

Panda Symbol

The Giant Panda mascot of WWF originated from a panda named Chi Chi that was transferred from the Beijing Zoo to the London Zoo in the same year of the establishment of WWF. As the only giant panda residing in the Western area at that time, along with its physical features and status as an endangered species, panda is seen to serve the need of a strong recognizable symbol of the organization. Moreover, the organization also needs an animal that would have an impact in black and white printing. The logo was then designed by Sir Peter Scott from the preliminary sketches made by a Scottish naturalist, Gerald Watterson.

Current conservation approach

WWF’s current strategy for achieving its mission specifically focuses on restoring populations of 36 species (species or species groups that are important for their ecosystem or to people, including elephants, tunas, whales, dolphins and porpoises), and ecological footprint in 6 areas (carbon emissions, cropland, grazing land, fishing, forestry and water).

The organization also works on a number of global issues driving biodiversity loss and unsustainable use of natural resources, including finance, business practices, laws, and consumption choices. Local offices also work on national or regional issues.

WWF works with a large number of different groups to achieve its goals, including other NGOs, governments, business, investment banks, scientists, fishers, farmers and local communities. It also undertakes public campaigns to influence decision makers, and seeks to educate people on how to live in a more environmentally friendly manner.

Notable programs and campaigns:

• Debt-for-Nature Swap;

• Earth Hour;

• Healthy Grown;

• Marine Stewardship Council;

• WWF global initiatives.

In 2008, through the Global Programme Framework (GPF), WWF is now focusing its efforts on 13 Global Initiatives:

• Amazon;

• Arctic;

- China for a Global Shif;

- Climate & Energy;

- Coastal East Africa;

- Coral Triangle;

- Forest and Climate;

- Green Heart of Africa;

- Heart of Borneo;

- Living Himalayas;

- Market Transformation;

- Smart Fishing;

- Tigers.

To be read after the Unit 14

Mars Science Laboratory

Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) is a robotic space probe mission to Mars launched by NASA on November 26, 2011, which successfully landed Curiosity, a Mars rover, in Gale Crater on August 6, 2012. The overall objectives include investigating Mars' habitability, studying its climate and geology, and collecting data for a manned mission to Mars. The rover carries a variety of scientific instruments designed by an international team.

The Mars Science Laboratory mission is part of NASA’s Mars Exploration Program, a long-term effort for the robotic exploration of Mars that is managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory of California Institute of Technology. The total cost of the MSL project is about $2.5 billion.

NASA called for proposals for the rover’s scientific instruments in April 2004, and eight proposals were selected on December 14 of that year. Testing and design of components also began in late 2004, including Aerojet’s designing of a monopropellant engine with the ability to throttle from 15–100 percent thrust with a fixed propellant inlet pressure.

By November 2008 most hardware and software development was complete, and testing continued. At this point, cost overruns were approximately $400 million. In the attempts to meet the launch date, several instruments and a cache for samples were removed and other instruments and cameras were simplified to simplify testing and integration of the rover. The next month, NASA delayed the launch to late 2011 because of inadequate testing time. Eventually the costs for developing the rover did reach $2.47 billion, that for a rover that initially had been classified as a medium-cost mission with a maximum budget of $650 million, yet NASA still had to ask for an additional $82 million to meet the planned November launch.

Between March 23–29, 2009, the general public ranked nine finalist rover names (Adventure, Amelia, Journey, Perception, Pursuit, Sunrise, Vision, Wonder, and Curiosity) through a public poll on the NASA website. On May 27, 2009, the winning name was announced to be Curiosity.

Previous successful U.S. Mars rovers include Spirit and Opportunity, and Sojourner from the Mars Pathfinder mission. Curiosity is about twice as long and five times as heavy as Spirit and Opportunity.

The MSL mission has four scientific goals: Determine the landing site's habitability including the role of water, the study of the climate and the geology of Mars. It is also useful preparation for a future manned mission to Mars.

To contribute to these goals, MSL has five main scientific objectives:

1. Determine the nature and inventory of organic carbon compounds.

2. Investigate the chemical building blocks of life (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur).

3. Identify features that may represent the effects of biological pro-cesses.

4. Investigate the chemical, isotopic, and mineralogical composition of the Martian surface and near-surface geological materials.

5. Interpret the processes that have formed and modified rocks and soils.

As part of its exploration, it also measured the radiation exposure in the interior of the spacecraft as it traveled to Mars, and it is continuing radiation measurements as it explores the surface of Mars. This data would be important for a future manned mission.

To be read after the Unit 15

Text 1. Types of computers

The types of computers range from the Hybrid to the Analog types. The computers you come across in the daily course of your day range from laptops, palmtops and towers, to desktop computers, to name a few. But the very word «computers» reminds one of the desktop computers used in offices or homes. Different categories of computers have been devised in keeping with our varied needs.

According to the classification based on operational principle the types of computers: analog and hybrid.

Analog Computers: The Analog computer is almost an extinct type of computer these days. It is different from a digital computer in respect that it can perform numerous mathematical operations simultaneously. It is also unique in terms of operation as it utilizes continuous variables for the purpose of mathematical computation. It utilizes mechanical, hydraulic, or electrical energy or operation.

Hybrid computers: These types of computers are, as the name suggests, a combination of both Analog and Digital computers. The Digital computers which work on the principle of binary digit system of «0» and «1» can give very precise results. But the problem is that they are too slow and incapable of large scale mathematical operation. In the hybrid types of computers the Digital counterparts convert the analog signals to perform Robotics and Process control.

Apart from this, computers are also categorized on the basis of physical structures and the purpose of their use. Based on capacity, speed and reliability they can be divided into three categories of computers:

1. The Mainframe Computer – These are computers used by large organizations like meteorological surveys and statistical institutes for performing bulk mathematical computations. They are core computers which are used for desktop functions of over one hundred people simultaneously.

2. The Microcomputer – These are the most frequently used computers better known by the name of «Personal computers». This is the type of computer meant for public use. Other than Desktop Computer the choice ranges as follows: Hand-held (HPC), PDA, Tablet PC, Laptop, Desktop, Tower, Workstation.

A desktop is a PC that is not designed for portability. The expectation with desktop systems is that you will set the computer up in a permanent location. Most desktops offer more power, storage and versatility for less cost than their portable brethren.

Laptops, also called notebooks, are portable computers that integrate the display, keyboard, a pointing device or trackball, processor, memory and hard drive all in a battery-operated package slightly larger than an average hardcover book.

Palmtops, more commonly known as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), are tightly integrated computers that often use flash memory instead of a hard drive for storage. These computers usually do not have keyboards but rely on touchscreen technology fox user input. Palmtops are typically smaller than a paperback novel, very lightweight with a reaso-nable battery life. A slightly larger and heavier version of the palmtop is the handheld computer.

A tablet PC is a notebook or slate-shaped mobile computer, first introduced by Pen Computing in the early 90s with their PenGo Tablet Computer and popularized by Microsoft. Its touchscreen or graphics tablet/screen hybrid technology allows the user to operate the computer with a stylus or digital pen, or a fingertip, instead of a keyboard or mouse. The form factor offers a more mobile way to interact with a computer. Tablet PCs are of notebooks are impractical or unwieldy, or do not provide the needed functionality.

A workstation is a desktop computer that has a more powerful processor, additional memory and enhanced capabilities for performing a special group of task, such as 3D Graphics or game development.

3. The Mini computer – Mini computers like the mainframe computers are used by business organization. The difference being that it can support the simultaneous working of up to 100 users and is usually maintained in business organizations for the maintenance of accounts and finances.

Yet another category of computer is the Super Computers. It is somewhat similar to mainframe computers and is used in economic forecasts and engineering designs. Today life without computers is inconceivable. Usage of different types of computers has made life both smooth and fast paced.

Text 2. Computer programs in the architecture

Computer-aided architectural design

Computer-aided architectural design (CAAD) software programs are the repository of accurate and comprehensive records of buildings and are used by architects and architectural companies.

The first program was installed back in the 1960s, to help architects save time instead of drawing their blueprints. Computer-aided design also known as CAD was originally the type of program that architects used, but since CAD couldn’t offer all the tools that architects needed to complete a project, CAAD developed as a distinct class of software.

Overview

All CAD and CAAD systems employ a database with geometric and other properties of objects; they all have some kind of graphic user interface to manipulate a visual representation rather than the database; and they are all more or less concerned with assembling designs from standard and non-standard pieces. Currently, the main distinction which causes one to speak of CAAD rather than CAD lies in the domain knowledge (architecture-specific objects, techniques, data, and process support) embedded in the system. A CAAD system differs from other CAD systems in two respects:

It has an explicit object database of building parts and construction knowledge. It explicitly supports the creation of architectural objects.

In a more general sense, CAAD also refers to the use of any computational technique in the field of architectural design other than by means of architecture-specific software. For example, software which is specifically developed for the computer animation industry (e.g. Maya and 3DStudio Max), is also used in architectural design. The exact distinction of what properly belongs to CAAD is not always clear. Specialized software, for example for calculating structures by means of the finite element method, is used in architectural design and in that sense may fall under CAAD. On the other hand, such software is seldom used to create new designs.

In 1974 Caad became a current word and was a common topic of commercial modernization.

Three dimensional objects:

CAAD has two types of structures in its program. The first system is surface structure which provides a graphics medium to represent three dimensional objects using two dimensional representations. Also algorithms that allow the generation of patterns and their analysis using programmed criteria, and data banks that store information about the problem at hand and the standards and regulations that applies to it. The second system is deep structure which means that the operations performed by the computer have natural limitations. Computer hardware and machine languages that are supported by these make it easy to perform arithmetical operations quickly and accurately. Also an almost illogical number of layers of symbolic processing can be built enabling the functionalities that are found at the surface.

Advantages

Another advantage to CAAD is the two way mapping of activities and functionalities. The two instances of mapping are indicated to be between the surface structures (TM1) and the deep structures (TM2). These mappings are abstractions that are introduced in order to discuss the process of design and deployment of CAAD systems. In designing the systems the system developers usually consider TM1. Here a one-to-one mapping is the typical statement, which is to develop a computer based functionality that maps as closely as possible into a corresponding manual design acti-vity, for example, drafting of stairs, checking spatial conflict between building systems, and generating perspectives from orthogonal views. The architectural design processes tend to integrate models isolated so far. Many different kinds of expert knowledge, tools, visualization techniques, and media are to be combined. The design process covers the complete life cycle of the building. The areas that are covered are construction, operations, reorganization, as well as destruction. Considering the shared use of digital design tools and the exchange of information and knowledge between designers and across different projects, we speak of a design continuum.

An architect’s work involves mostly visually represented data. Problems are often outlined and dealt with in a graphical approach. Only this form of expression serves as a basis for work and discussion. Therefore, the designer should have maximum visual control over the processes ta-king place within the design continuum. Further questions occur about navigation, associative information access, programming and communication within very large data sets.

ArchiCAD is an architectural BIM CAD software for Macintosh and Windows developed by the Hungarian company Graphisoft. ArchiCAD offers specialized solutions for handling all common aspects of aesthetics and engineering during the whole design process of the built environment – buildings, interiors, urban areas, etc.

Development of ArchiCAD started in 1982 for the original Apple Macintosh. ArchiCAD is recognized as the first CAD product on a personal computer able to create both 2D drawings and parametric 3D geometry. In its debut in 1987 ArchiCAD also became the first implementation of BIM under Graphisoft’s «Virtual Building» concept. Today more than 100 000 architects are using it in the building design industry.

AutoCAD Architecture (abbreviated as ACA) is a version of Autodesk's flagship product, AutoCAD, with tools and functions specially suited to architectural work.

Architectural objects have a relationship to one another and interact with each other intelligently. For example, a window has a relationship to the wall that contains it. If you move or delete the wall, the window reacts accordingly. Objects can be represented in both 2D and 3D.

In addition, intelligent architectural objects maintain dynamic links with construction documents and specifications, resulting in more accurate project deliverables. When someone deletes or modifies a door, for example, the door schedule can be automatically updated. Spaces and areas update automatically when certain elements are changed, calculations such as square footage are always up to date.

Учебное издание

Попова Ирина Юрьевна

Рыбина Ирина Рудольфовна