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19
Marine Pharmacognosy
Mamta Kumari, Piyushkumar Sadhu, Niyati Shah, Chitrali Talele
Department of Pharmacy, Sumandeep Vidyapeeth Deemed to be University, Vadodara, India
19.1 Introduction
Marine pharmacognosy is the component of pharmacognosy
that studies natural compounds originating from marine
creatures for possible pharmacological and therapeutic applications. It is a subbranch of terrestrial pharmacognosy. It
involves the exploration, isolation, characterization, and utilization of bioactive compounds from marine sources, such
as algae, sponges, corals, molluscs, and various microorganisms found in marine environments [1, 2]. These organisms
have evolved a number of techniques for flourishing in harsh
settings, such as severe temperatures, salinity, pressure, variable degrees of oxygenation, radiation exposure, mutagenesis
effects, and defenses against infection, fouling, and proliferation by other organisms. Marine organisms have evolved
unique chemical defenses and adaptations to survive in challenging underwater ecosystems. These chemical compounds
often possess intriguing biological activities and can be valuable resources for drug discovery and development, as they
may exhibit potential applications in treating various human
ailments, including cancer, inflammation, viral and bacterial
diseases, neurological disorders, and other therapeutic properties [3]. Additionally, marine pharmacognosy serves an
important function in biodiversity conservation, as the discovery and effective utilization of marine resources will
result in a deeper comprehension of marine ecosystems and
the protection of threatened species.
19.1.1 Exploring Marine Organisms for Bioactive Compounds
The oceanic environment is residence to an extensive and
abundance of organisms, many of which produce unique
and valuable bioactive compounds. Pharmaceuticals, nutra-
ceuticals, cosmetics, and manufacturing products are just a
few of the many uses for these molecules that may be developed [4]. Exploring marine organisms for bioactive compounds is a complex and challenging task, but it is also a
rewarding one. There are various steps involved in exploring marine organisms for bioactive compounds, such as
first starting from the sampling and collection, which
involves the collection of samples of marine organisms
from various environments, often using deep-sea submersibles, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), or traditional collection methods. Then, extraction and isolation will be done
from the collected sample. The isolated compounds are subjected to a battery of biological assays and screening tests to
assess their potential activities and therapeutic applications; this helps to identify promising candidates. Advanced
analytical methods, including nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) spectroscopy and mass spectroscopy (MS), are utilized to the chemical composition of promising substances
[5]. Compounds with significant bioactivity are further
studied for their safety, efficacy, and commercial viability.
They may be developed into pharmaceutical drugs, nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, or other applications. Researchers
also assess the environmental impact of collecting marine
organisms and consider sustainable harvesting practices to
protect fragile marine ecosystems.
19.1.2 Importance of Marine Organism in Drug Discovery
Novel components with potential uses in medication delivery can be found in abundance in marine creatures. The
biocompatibility of marine chemicals serves as one of their
most crucial features for medication administration. This
means that they are well-tolerated by the body and can be
372 19 Marine Pharmacognosy
used to deliver drugs to specific tissues without causing side
effects. Marine compounds are also often biodegradable,
meaning that they can be broken down by the body over
time [6].
Another important property of marine compounds
for drug delivery is their ability to target specific cells and
tissues. This is because many marine compounds are
naturally attracted to certain molecules or receptors on
cell surfaces. This targeting ability can be used to deliver
drugs more efficiently and reduce side effects. Marine
compounds are also being used to develop new drug
delivery systems that can overcome some of the challenges
of traditional methods. For example, marine-derived
hydrogels are being developed to deliver drugs to the brain,
which is difficult to do with conventional methods. Some
specific examples of how marine organisms are being used
in drug delivery are as follows [7]:
1. Alginate: A polysaccharide derived from brown algae,
alginate is used to make biodegradable capsules and
beads that can be used to deliver drugs orally or
by injection.
2. Chitosan: A polysaccharide derived from shrimp
shells, chitosan is used to make mucoadhesive films
and nanoparticles that can be used to deliver drugs to
the nasal cavity, lungs, and eyes.
3. Fucoidan: A polymer obtained from brown algae,
fucoidan is being developed to deliver drugs to the
brain and to target cancer cells.
4. Hyaluronic acid: A polysaccharide found in many
marine organisms, hyaluronic acid is used to make
hydrogels and other drug delivery systems that can be
used to deliver drugs to the skin, joints, and other
tissues.
Researchers in marine pharmacognosy work to identify,
extract, and study these bioactive compounds, aiming
to develop new drugs, pharmaceuticals, or nutraceuticals
that can benefit human health. This field is crucial not
only for expanding the pharmaceutical industry’s drug
development pipeline but also for preserving and
19.2 Marine Ecosystems and Biodiversity
Marine ecosystems encompass a vast and diverse array of
environments that cover over 70% of the Earth’s surface.
They range from the sunlight and shallow waters of coral
reefs to the mysterious depths of the abyssal zone in the
ocean’s trenches. This explores the multifaceted world of
marine ecosystems and the rich tapestry of life they host.
19.2.1 Types of Marine Ecosystems
i) Coral Reefs: These vibrant and biologically diverse
ecosystems are often called the “rainforests of the
sea.” They are home to an incredible variety of species, including colorful corals, fish, and invertebrates.
Coral reefs are known for their delicate balance and
sensitivity to environmental changes [8].
ii) Mangrove Forests: Mangroves are coastal ecosystems
that thrive in brackish water. They serve as important
breeding grounds for marine life, provide protection
against coastal erosion, and house a unique community of organisms adapted to the challenging conditions of saltwater and fluctuating tides [9].
iii) Deep-sea Habitats: The deepest part of the ocean is one
of the Earth’s least accessible and most harsh regions.
It includes hydrothermal vent fields, cold seeps, and
the pitch-black abyssal plain. Organisms in these zones
have adapted to extreme pressure, low temperatures,
and the absence of sunlight [10].
iv) Intertidal Zones: It is a zone where the sea intersects
the land, characterized by the ebb and flow of tides. It
is home to a dynamic community of species that must
endure constant exposure to the elements and frequent
changes in water levels [11].
19.2.2 Biodiversity in Marine Environments
Marine biodiversity encompasses an astounding array of
life forms, from the tiniest microorganisms to the largest
whales. It includes the following [12, 13]:
i) Microorganisms: These include bacteria, viruses, and
single-celled organisms like phytoplankton. Microbes
play crucial roles in marine ecosystems, serving as the
foundation of the marine food web and producing a
huge variety of bioactive compounds.
ii) Macroalgae: Also known as seaweeds, these large pho-
tosynthetic organisms are essential for providing habitat and food for marine creatures. Some macroalgae
are resources of bioactive chemicals used in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.
iii) Invertebrates: Marine invertebrates, such as sponges,
mollusks, and echinoderms are known for their
remarkable variation and the potential to generate biologically active compounds that have medicinal
potential.
iv) Fish and Marine Mammals: Many species of fish and
underwater creatures have been explored for their
potential benefits to yield bioactive compounds used in
the treatment of various diseases.
19.3 Bioactive Compounds from Marine Microorganisms
373
19.2.3 Adaptations and Survival Strategies
Marine organisms have evolved remarkable adaptations to
thrive in their specific environments. These adaptations
include [14–16];
i) Extreme Temperature Tolerance: Some species can
endure extreme cold in polar regions or extreme heat
in hydrothermal vents.
ii) High-pressure Adaptations: Deep-sea creatures are
adapted to withstand immense pressure, often exceeding 1000 times the atmospheric pressure at sea level.
iii) Bioluminescence and Camouflage: Many marine
organisms use bioluminescence for communication
and predation avoidance, while others employ camouflage to hide from predators or prey.
iv) Symbiotic Relationships: Mutualistic partnerships
between species, such as coral and zooxanthellae, provide advantages like nutrient exchange and protection.
19.2.4 Ecosystem Services Provided by Marine Biodiversity
Marine ecosystems provide a diverse set of ecological
advantages, comprising:
i) Climate Regulation: Oceans absorb carbon dioxide
) and help regulate global climate patterns.
(CO
2
ii) Fisheries and Aquaculture: Marine ecosystems sup-
port valuable fisheries and aquaculture industries, providing essential food sources for human populations.
iii) Medicinal Resources: Marine organisms produce bio-
active compounds with therapeutic potential.
iv) Coastal Protection: Coastal ecosystems like mangroves
function as natural barriers against surges from thunderstorms and erosion. The significance of these services for both the environment and human well-being
cannot be overstated [14, 16–18].
19.2.5 Biodiversity Threats and Conservation
Despite their importance, marine ecosystems and biodiversity are facing numerous threats [10, 14]:
i) Climate Change: Rising temperatures, ocean acidifica-
tion, and sea-level rise are affecting marine habitats
and species distribution.
ii) Pollution: Contaminants from land-based sources,
including plastics and chemical pollutants, and harm
marine life.
iii) Overfishing: Unsustainable fishing practices deplete
fish stocks and disrupt marine food webs.
iv) Habitat Destruction: Coastal development, destructive
fishing methods, and mining activities damage critical
marine habitats.
Conservation efforts focus on mitigating these threats
through initiatives such as marine-protected areas, sustainable fisheries management, and habitat restoration.
The diverse marine ecosystems, ranging from coral reefs
and mangroves to deep-sea extremophiles and intertidal
species, offer a wealth of unique bioactive compounds that
hold significant promise for pharmaceutical applications.
These compounds, characterized by their varied chemical
structures and mechanisms of action, are emerging as
attractive candidates for drug development. Furthermore,
the immense biodiversity within marine environments is a
cornerstone of the quest for novel bioactive compounds
[19]. This rich diversity, encompassing a wide array of
marine organisms, serves as an invaluable wellspring for
the discovery of potential medicines. Scientists are continuously engaged in the exploration of this vast biodiversity,
diligently seeking out compounds with therapeutic potential to address pressing medical needs.
19.3 Bioactive Compounds from
Marine Microorganisms
Bioactive chemicals generated from marine microorganisms
encompass a diverse array of natural molecules generated by
minute life forms inhabiting Earth’s oceans and various
aquatic ecosystems. These marine microorganisms form
a heterogeneous group, encompassing bacteria, archaea,
fungi, algae, protozoa, and even viruses. They flourish in
oceanic settings, having evolved to adverse circumstances,
such as high atmospheric pressure, frigid temperatures, variable accessibility to light, and salt [20]. These microorganisms inhabit various regions of the sea, spanning from the
top streams to its bottom, and can also be found in diverse
marine ecosystems, such as underwater coral reefs, seagrass
meadows, and mangrove swamps. They play a vital role in
aquatic environments and provide a rich supply of bioactive
chemicals. Bioactive chemicals derived from marine microorganisms display a diverse range of biological actions,
including antibacterial, anticytotoxic, and anti-inflammatory properties, antioxidant, antiviral, immunomodulatory,
cardiovascular protective, neuroprotective, and more. These
compounds hold significant potential for the manufacturing
of novel medicines, commodities for agriculture, and industrial components [21]. Marine microorganisms are being
studied thoroughly for potential application in biotechnologyrelated fields, including bioremediation, biofuel generation,
374 19 Marine Pharmacognosy
and bioplastics. These microorganisms possess unique
enzymatic capabilities and biochemical pathways that
can be harnessed for industrial purposes [22]. Despite
their promise, the isolation and cultivation of marine
microorganisms present considerable challenges, primarily
due to their specific environmental requirements.
19.3.1 Microbial Diversity in the Marine Environment
i) Bacteria: Marine bacteria constitute a substantial portion
of the microbial diversity in oceans. They are highly
adaptable and have evolved to inhabit a diverse variety of
niches, from deepest ocean hydrothermal vents to surface
waters. Examples include Cyanobacteria, Streptomyces,
Pseudoalteromonas, and Vibrio which are prolific producers of bioactive compounds, which produce bioactive
compounds like antibiotics and actinobacteria, known
for their role in antibiotic discovery [23, 24].
ii) Fungi: Marine fungi, while less explored than terres-
trial equivalents, play significant roles in marine ecosystems. They are involved in nutrient cycling and can
produce bioactive secondary metabolites, including
compounds with antiviral, anticancer, and immunosuppressive properties [25, 26].
iii) Algae: Microscopic and large seaweed play crucial roles
in marine ecosystems, generating a range of bioactive
substances. These include immunomodulatory polysaccharides and antioxidants in the form of pigments.
Furthermore, marine algae represent a promising reservoir for prospective pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals,
and applications in biotechnology [27].
iv) Viruses: Marine viruses, particularly bacteriophages
that infect marine bacteria, are abundant and influence microbial communities. Some marine phages
produce enzymes with biotechnological applications,
while others can modulate bacterial populations,
impacting marine ecosystems [24].
19.3.2 Isolation and Characterization Techniques
1. Cultivation and Fermentation: This is the traditional
method of isolating marine microorganisms. In this
method, samples from the marine environment are
collected and cultured in the laboratory. The resulting
cultures are then screened for the synthesis of bioactive substances. Metagenomics: This process involves
extracting DNA directly from environmental samples
to identify and characterize the genetic potential of
unculturable microorganisms. This allows researchers
to identify novel groups of biosynthetic genes for bioactive chemical synthesis [28, 29].
2. Chemical Extraction: Once cultivated, marine micro-
organisms are processed to extract bioactive compounds. Various solvents and extraction methods are
employed to obtain these compounds from microbial
biomass.
3. Analytical Techniques: Sophisticated analytical meth-
ods, including NMR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry
(MS), and X-ray crystallography, are employed to
assess the structure and characteristics of isolated bioactive substances [30].
19.3.3 Pharmaceutical Applications
1. Antibiotics: Marine-derived antibiotics like
Salinosporamide A have been investigated for possible
use as novel medicinal products to combat antibioticresistant bacteria [21].
2. Anticancer agents: Compounds from marine microor-
ganisms, such as Eribulin (derived from a marine
sponge), have demonstrated effectiveness against various cancer types.
3. Antivirals: Some marine-derived compounds have
shown promise in inhibiting viral infections, including
HIV and herpes viruses.
Table 19.1 Bioactive compounds from marine microorganisms.
Compound name Source Biological activity Health benefits References
Amphidinol 22 Dinoflagellate
Amphidinium Carterae
Dentigerumycin E Streptomyces sp. Antiproliferative and
Bagremycins F & G Streptomyces sp. Antiproliferative and
Abyssomicin Verrucosispora sp. Inhibitory effect against
Inhibit DNA synthesis,
induction of ROS
production, apoptosis
antimetastatic activity
induce apoptosis
influenza A virus
Cytotoxicity and antifungal [27]
Antitumoral [31]
Antimicrobial and antibacterial [32]
Antiviral [33]
19.4 Marine Algae and Their Medicinal Potential
Compound name Source Biological activity Health benefits References
375
Aspergillsteroid A Aspergillus sp. Disruption of cell
Equisetin Fusarium sp. Good inibitors of
membrane
HIV-integration
4. Anti-inflammatories: Marine bioactive compounds
can exhibit anti-inflammatory properties, which are
valuable in treating conditions like arthritis.
5. Pain Management: Certain compounds have analgesic
properties and can be used for pain relief.
6. Neurological Disorders: The prospective use of marine
bioactive chemicals is now being studied for treating
neurological disorders like Alzheimer’s disease (AD).
Some bioactive compounds from microorganisms
showing different pharmacological action are listed in
Table 19.1.
19.4 Marine Algae and Their
Medicinal Potential
Microalgae encompass a variety of photoautotrophic organisms belonging to various phyla, including Cyanophyta,
Chlorophyta, Rhodophyta, Haptophyta, Streptophyta, and
Heterokontophyta. These microorganisms synthesize intri-
cate organic compounds, known as primary and secondary
metabolites, through the utilization of water, CO
energy [36]. Microalgae demonstrate remarkable adaptability to diverse environmental stressors, allowing them to succeed in many different fields of conditions, spanning from
freshwater to highly saline environments. They can even
flourish in damp environments, dark soils, and arid desert
sands, extending their presence to lofty altitudes within the
atmosphere [37].
Microalgae are recognized for their cosmeceutical potential, primarily attributed to their impressive ability to respond
to environmental stressors. Cosmeceuticals, which encompass products containing biologically active components
offering therapeutic or medicinal advantages, aim to enhance
skin structure, morphology, and overall appearance. Within
microalgae, polysaccharides are notably prominent among
these active compounds. They hold substantial promise for
applications related to preventing blemishes, promoting skin
repair, and mitigating inflammation, as exemplified by genera like Chlorella [38, 39]. Consequently, these polysaccharides are utilized in the formulation of thickening agents,
moisturizers, and gelling agents. Furthermore, microalgae
exhibit nutraceutical properties, featuring compounds, such
as phycocyanin, astaxanthin, beta-carotene, fucoxanthin,
lutein, lycopene, phycobiliproteins, and more.
, and solar
2
Figure 19.1 Cyanobacteria as Cyanobacterium [40].
19.4.1 Diversity of Marine Macroalgae
19.4.1.1 Cyanobacteria as Marine Microalgae
Within the realm of marine microalgae, which constitute
the foundation of phytoplankton, three primary categories
emerge: cyanobacteria, diatoms (Bacillariophyta), and dinoflagellates (Dinophyceae) [40] (Figure 19.1). These microalgae boast considerable biochemical diversity, leading to the
identification of numerous innovative bioactive compounds
with pharmaceutical potential. Some of these substances
have displayed potent antiviral and anti-HIV characteristics
[41]. Recent breakthroughs have given rise to a natural antiAIDS medication sourced from Lyngbya lagerhaimanii and
Phormidium tenue, two distinct types of cyanobacteria.
Calcium spirulan, an extract obtained from Spirulina platen-
sis, is a remarkable substance derived from these organisms
that exhibits robust antiviral properties [42]. Specific strains
of cyanobacteria produce antifouling agents possessing antibiotic attributes, like extracts from Lyngbya majuscule,
which have been explored as possible reservoirs for antifouling substances. Moreover, certain products originating from
cyanobacteria showcase multifaceted therapeutic qualities
[43]. For instance, Ulithiacyclamide and Patellamides A and
C are recognized for their effectiveness against malaria and
tumors, and for reversing resistance to multiple drugs [44].
These Gram-negative bacteria, classified as Cyanophyta,
represent a useful source of innovative bioactive chemicals
with fungicidal, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antitumor properties, rendering them promising candidates for
potential pharmaceutical uses [45].
Antibacterial (antibiotics) [34]
Anti MRSA (methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus)
[35]
376 19 Marine Pharmacognosy
19.4.1.2 Marine Macroalgae
Macroalgae, also known as seaweeds, thrive in intertidal
zones and tropical marine environments. These multicellular organisms display a diverse array of physical traits and
morphologies and may be classified based on the pigments
they produce for photosynthesis, such as red seaweed
(Rhodophyta), green seaweed (Chlorophyta), and brown
oceanic algae (Phaeophyta) [46] (Figure 19.2). Over 3 200
distinct chemicals have been extracted from macroalgae,
with a significant proportion sourced from subtropical and
tropical waters [47]. These chemicals have a diverse variety
of therapeutic properties, encompassing anticancer, free
radicle scavenger, antiviral agent, fouling-resistant,
antithrombotic, antimicrobial, fungicidal, and anthelminthic properties [48, 49].
Red seaweeds are being explored for applications, such as
anticoagulants, anthelmintics, and treatments for gastritis
and diarrhea [50]. Green seaweeds have traditional uses,
including applications as anthelmintics, astringents, and
anti-gout remedies. Brown marine algae are utilized in the
management of conditions like arthritis, high blood pressure, arteriosclerosis, menstruation issues, skin ailments,
gastrointestinal ulcers, goiter, and sexually transmitted diseases, and they also serve as anticoagulants. Notably, the
polysaccharides present in macroalgae, including ulvans
from green seaweeds, alginates, fucans, laminarin from
brown oceanic algae, and carrageenans and porphyrans
from red seaweeds, have the capacity to elicit defense
responses against plant pathogens [51].
19.4.2 Bioactive Compounds and Their Applications
Microalgae, autotrophic organisms found in diverse environments, produce various secondary metabolites known
as “High-value Molecules” (HVMs). These HVMs have
therapeutic properties, including anticancer and antimicrobial effects, making microalgae attractive for pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and other industrial applications.
Additionally, microalgae can coproduce pigments, proteins, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and antioxidants, expanding their potential uses in health-related
products and across industries like food, cosmetics, energy,
and pharmaceuticals [52].
19.4.2.1 Pigments
Macroalgae are capable of generating three primary groups
of natural pigments, specifically chlorophylls, carotenoids,
and phycobilins. Algae that have high concentrations of
chlorophylls a and b usually exhibit green color, whereas
the greenish-brown appearance in algae can be ascribed
to the existence of fucoxanthin, a carotenoid. Furthermore,
the red coloration in seaweed is a result of the existence of
chlorophylls A, C, and D in association with phycobilins,
comprising PE (a blue pigment) and PC (a red pigment)
[53, 54].
Carotenoids have garnered increased interest due to
their antioxidative attributes, prompting their incorporation in dietary supplements, enriched food products, edible
colorants, animal nutrition, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetic
formulations. They hold promise in potentially mitigating
the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), cancers, and
various eye-related disorders [55].
Carotenoids, a class of lipophilic linear polyenes, may be
particularly arranged in two major categories: carotenes (α,
β, and γ carotene) and lycopenes (which have a cyclic structure at the end of the chain, composed solely of carbon and
hydrogen atoms), as well as xanthophylls or oxycarotenoids
[53]. Green sea algae species include β-carotene, lutein, vio-
laxanthin, neoxanthin, and zeaxanthin, whereas brown
algae species have β-carotene, violaxanthin, pheophytins,
and fucoxanthin. It is effective toward both Gram-positive
Figure 19.2 Marine macroalgae; red seaweeds (left) and brown marine algae (right) [46].
19.4 Marine Algae and Their Medicinal Potential 377
as well as Gram-negative bacteria [56, 57]. These compounds exhibit properties related to antioxidation, cancer
prevention, inflammation reduction, obesity prevention,
inhibition of angiogenesis, and neuroprotection.
19.4.2.1.1 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
PUFAs, specifically eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are commonly derived from
fish oil. However, their usage is restricted due to their
unpleasant taste and odor. As an alternative, microalgae
like Tetraselmis sp. and Nannochloropsis oculata have
gained prominence as abundant sources of PUFAs [58].
EPA and DHA are vital omega-3 fatty acids found in
marine oils, renowned for their diverse health advantages; it include the impact on cardiovascular health, the
coagulation process, blood platelets, endothelial structure
and function, and the breakdown of lipoprotein [59].
Clinical studies using algal DHA have revealed a reduction in blood triglyceride levels and possible cardiovascular benefits [60].
EPA plays indispensable roles in cellular metabolism
and holds a significant role in biological membranes.
Healthy conditions, including lipid disorders, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and cerebrovascular illnesses,
might be beneficiated from the absorption of omega-3
fatty acids, which includes EPA. Research performed on
animal models has underscored the advantages of EPA
for diabetic animals [61, 62]. DHA has a significant
function in cerebral and vision development, and it also
impacts the health of the cardiovascular system by being
an essential component of the nervous system, the eye,
and cardiac muscle. DHA algal oil, such as that from
Schizochytrium sp., demonstrates a favorable safety pro-
file even at lower intake levels. Moreover, supplementing breastfeeding mothers with algal DHA supports
infant brain development [63]. Both EPA and DHA have
critical roles in resolving disorders, including dementia,
Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, a skin disorder called psoriasis, cancer, atherosclerosis, autoimmune diseases, such
as rheumatoid arthritis, and inflammation-related conditions [56]. Animal experiments expresses the potential
advantages of omega-3 fatty acids, including those from
algal sources, in the management of Parkinson’s disease
(PD) and other neurological disorders.
19.4.2.2 Proteins
Microalgae are considered to be prospective biological
hubs for their high level of protein which, makes them
ideal for protein synthesis. They serve as a valuable feed
source for livestock and poultry and offer a nutritious
option for human consumption. Notably, microalgal varieties like Arthrospira, Chlorella, Dunaliella salina, and
Spirulina are known for their high protein content.
Microalgal proteins have demonstrated anti-inflammatory
and antitumor properties [64]. Phycobiliproteins derived
from marine cyanobacteria and red seaweeds possess a
diverse range of advantageous qualities, including antitumor, anti-inflammatory property, immunomodulatory,
antioxidant, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective effects.
Furthermore, a recently discovered biomolecule known as
mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs), found extensively
in oceanic creatures, such as microalgae, has demonstrated
its effectiveness in countering photoaging in various skin
types [65].
Some bioactive compounds from marine algae showing
different pharmacological action are listed in Table 19.2.
Table 19.2 Bioactive compounds from marine algae
Compound name Source Biological activity Health benefits References
Fucoxanthin Brown algae Suppressing McP-1 and enhancing
Spiralisone A Zonaria spiralis (brown
algae)
adrb3 and gluT4 expression in the
mitochondria of white adipose tissue
(WAT) increases fatty acid oxidation
and induces the generation of heat in
WAT via boosting the level of
uncoupling protein1.
Exhibits inhibitory effects against
neurological diseases by targeting
CDK5/p25, CK1δ, and GSK3β
kinases, also shows antibacterial
activity against Gram-positive
Bacillus subtilis.
Antidiabetic and antiobesity [66]
Antibacterial [67]
(Continued)
378 19 Marine Pharmacognosy
Table 19.2 (Continued)
Compound name Source Biological activity Health benefits References
Caulerpenyne Caulerpa taxifolia Toxicity observed in cultured cell
Phobasterone B Red seaeweed Antimicrobial activity against Bacillus
Caulerpin Caulerpa racemosa
(Green algae)
lines, including KB cells and hamster
hepatocytes.
cereus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and
Candida albicans.
Stimulates the generation of NO by
increasing the expression of iNOS at
both the mRNA and protein ratios.
Additionally, it promotes the
transcription of mRNA for various
cytokines, such as IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10,
and TNF-α.
Anticancer [68]
Antimicrobial [69]
Immunostimulating impact
through macrophage activation
[70]
Figure 19.3 Phylum porifera, sponges (left), and animalia (right) [73].
19.5 Marine Invertebrates and Its Bioactive
Marine invertebrates refer to those organisms inhabiting
marine environments. The term “invertebrate” encompasses all non-vertebrate animals within the chordate phylum. Invertebrates are characterized by the absence of a
vertebral column, and some have developed protective features like shells or robust exoskeletons [71]. These creatures
play crucial roles in marine ecosystems and often possess
unique bioactive compounds that have garnered significant
attention in fields, such as pharmaceuticals, biotechnology,
and scientific research. The marine invertebrates most
extensively researched for their bioactive compound potential encompass sponges, cnidarians, molluscs, echinoderms,
and ascidians [72]. There are some notable examples of sea
invertebrates and their bioactive as follows:
19.5.1 Sponges (Phylum Porifera)
Marine sponge-like organisms are composed up of a jellylike membrane wedged within two thin cellular sheets, as
well as filaments formed of quartz, carbonates of calcium,
and a protein called spongin. In the 1950s, investigators
found evidence of modified nucleotides in extracts from
the Caribbean sponge (Cryptotethya crypta), highlighted
the importance of secondary chemical compounds having biological activity from marine invertebrates [73]
(Figure 19.3). This major achievement subsequently led
to the production of cytarabine (Cytosar-U®), the first
marine-based medicine accessible [74]. These compounds
are mainly categorized into terpenes, alkaloids, lipids,
and peptides. Half of these bioactive compounds exhibit
cytotoxic effects against tumor cells, while around 14%
display antimicrobial properties. Interestingly, certain
marine natural products (MNPs) sourced from sponges
have demonstrated potential in inhibiting essential
enzymes and protein synthesis that contribute to the regulation of cell cycles, cellular death induction, proteasome function, and protein phosphatase activity. For
example, renieramycins, which were originally isolated
from the colonial ascidian Ecteinascidia turbinata and
sold as Yondelis, have been approved for the treatment
of malignancies of ovary and metastatic soft tissue
carcinoma [75]. This demonstrates their potential as main
candidates for developing novel anticancer medicines.
19.5 Marine Invertebrates and Its Bioactive 379
19.5.2 Molluscs
Molluscs constitute a diverse group of marine invertebrates, encompassing snails, clams, oysters, mussels, and
squid (Figure 19.4). They serve as a vital source of sustenance and economic value for humans, while also presenting a valuable reservoir of bioactive compounds, including
peptides, alkaloids, terpenes, and steroids [73]. These
chemicals display a diversity of biological functions, such
as antitumor, antibacterial, anti-inflammation property,
and analgesic properties. Lignarenone B, is an example of a
signaling compound released by molluscs. It activates by
reducing glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) activity using
both ATP selective and non-competitive allosteric pathways. In addition, this chemical has the capability to
enhance the synthesis of neuritic cells in initial cortex neurons cultures while having no adverse consequences on
neurons. As a result, it offers an encouraging beginning for
the design of prospective therapeutic medicines for neuro-
Figure 19.4 Molluscs: snail [73].
logical disorders such as AD. Dolastatins, found in both
linear and cyclic forms, were initially identified in the sea
hare Dolabella Auricularia. These are cytotoxic peptides
functioning as mitotic inhibitors. They disrupt cell division
by interfering with tubulin formation, ultimately triggering
apoptosis in numerous cancerous cell lines. Dolastatins
have exhibited significant promise in treating breast and
liver cancers, solid tumors, and specific types of leukemia,
thereby undergoing clinical evaluation for their anticancer
properties [77, 78].
19.5.3 Echinoderms
The Echinodermata Phylum, the second-largest group of
deuterostomes, distinguishes itself by the absence of any
freshwater or terrestrial members. Echinoderms can be
categorized into five clades: Echinoidea (including sea
urchins), Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers), Crinoidea (sea
lilies and feather stars), Asteroidea (sea stars and starfish),
and Ophiuroidea (brittle stars) (Figure 19.5). Echinoderms
are recognized for their synthesis of bioactive-glycosylated
metabolic products, primarily characterized by steroidal
and sulfated substances, saponins, and glycolipids [79].
They are known for their spiky skin and radial symmetry.
Echinoderms yield a wide array of bioactive compounds,
spanning peptides, alkaloids, saponins, and terpenes.
These compounds possess diverse biological activities,
encompassing anticancer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing properties. Sea cucumbers, members of the Holothuroidea clade, are extensively spread in
deep sea and benthic environments. The primary source of
their bioactive components is the body wall, which consists
mainly of polysaccharides and collagen [80].
Figure 19.5 Echinoderms: Starfish (left) and sea cucumber (right) [79].
380 19 Marine Pharmacognosy
Table 19.3 Bioactive compounds from marine invertebrates
Compound name Source Biological activity Health benefits References
Metachromin A (Sponges) Dactylospongia metachromia Inhibits the production of
Zampanolides B, C, and D Cacospongia mycofijinsis Antimitotic and anti-
Misszrtine A Aspergillus sp. Due to the presence of indole
Plakortides Plakortis halichondrioides Increased Ca
Latrunculin B Negombota magnifica Shows fungal activity for
Some bioactive compounds from marine invertebrates
showing different pharmacological action are listed in
Table 19.3.
HBV by virtue of the
hydroquinone moiety and
double bonds located at
carbon positions 5 and 9
without causing cytotoxicity.
proliferative activity which
shows nanomolar cytoxicity
on HL-60 cell line.
nitrogen shows greater effect
on its cytotoxicity activity.
2+
activity of sarcoplasmic
reticulum.
aquaculture.
pumping
sampling location is crucial, as it determines the quality
and type of compounds obtained. Factors like depth, water
temperature, and geographic coordinates are considered.
19.6.2 Extraction Process and
19.6 Extraction Process and Characterization Techniques
19.6.1 Collecting and Processing of Marine Compounds
The collection of marine samples should adhere to the
guidelines established by the United Nations Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD), which was initially introduced
for signature during the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on
5 June 1992, and officially came into force on 29 December
1993. Notably, there have been recent updates to the CBD,
including the introduction of the “Nagoya Protocol.” If this
protocol is ratified by the parties to the CBD, it will give legal
binding status to the CBD’s terms. The CBD encourages a
global commitment to biological variety protection, sustainable exploitation of natural resources, and the equal sharing
of benefits from genetic information.
Marine bioactive chemicals can be obtained from several kinds of marine creatures, including algae, bacteria,
and marine mammals. Collection methods may include
harvesting, fishing, or microbial culturing, depending on
the source. Specific marine organisms are chosen for their
bioactive compounds, such as algae for pigments or microorganisms for enzymes and metabolites. The choice of
Characterization Techniques
Extraction is a critical initial step in the journey to harness
the therapeutic potential of compounds originating from
marine creatures. It is the process by which bioactive compounds are separated from the complex matrix of marine
organisms. It allows scientists to isolate the specific compounds of interest, such as novel molecules with potential
pharmaceutical applications. Effective extraction methods
aim to preserve the bioactivity of the compounds. The goal
is to obtain the compounds in their natural form, ensuring
that their therapeutic properties remain intact. The extraction process determines the quantity of bioactive compounds obtained. Efficient extraction methods maximize
yield, making it possible to obtain sufficient quantities for
further analysis and testing. Extracted compounds must be
in a form suitable for analytical testing [86]. Extraction prepares the compounds for subsequent analysis, enabling
researchers to characterize their chemical structures and
assess their potential as pharmaceutical agents. The
extracted compounds are subjected to biological assays to
evaluate their potential as drugs. The quality of the extraction process directly impacts the reliability and accuracy of
these assessments [87]. Sustainable extraction practices are
essential to minimize environmental impact. Responsible
Antiviral [81]
Macrolides [82]
Anticancer [83]
Cardiac relaxant [84]
Antifungal [85]