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References 311
15.6.3 Market Trends and Consumer Preferences
The worldwide nutraceuticals market is projected to increase from $418 080 million in 2023 to $703 122.075 million
by 2033, powered by a consistent compound annual growth
rate (CAGR) of 5.3% in sales over the next 10 years. The market has been pushed by the increasing demand for dietary
supplements and functional foods, which offer potential
benefits in addressing health conditions, such as obesity,
heart disease, cancer, high cholesterol, arthritis, and diabetes. Individuals also have a keen interest in customized
nutrition, particularly for gastrointestinal issues that conventional treatment is unable to resolve. The increasing
demand for herbal products and natural foods, namely in
North America and Europe, is fueling the expansion of the
nutraceuticals market. Emerging nutraceuticals, including
gummies, jellies, and soft gels, are gaining popularity
because of their diverse shapes, sizes, flavors, and potencies.
AI technology is significantly contributing to the nutraceuticals market by offering tailored guidance derived from individuals’ dietary and health information. The nutraceuticals
industry is dominated by major players, such as the United
States, the United Kingdom, Japan, India, Germany, and
China. Essential tactics for achieving success involve allocating resources to research, establishing a robust brand
identity and implementing effective marketing initiatives,
remaining informed about legislation, fostering partnerships with healthcare professionals, fitness influencers, or
retail chains, and demonstrating flexibility in response to
evolving customer preferences and health trends.
The growing public interest in nutraceuticals, food
products believed to have health benefits, has led to a
shift in consumer purchasing behavior. Factors, such as
health consciousness, product knowledge, availability,
price, marketing methods, and social considerations
influence purchasing behavior. A survey in Mumbai,
India, found that consumers’ purchasing behavior is
influenced by factors, such as gender, age, educational
attainment, and acculturation. Global harmonization of
legislation pertaining to nutraceuticals is needed to facilitate the industry’s expansion. Consumers primarily use
nutraceutical goods between 15 and 35 years, with
younger consumers preferring daily probiotics and
sports drinks. Dairy products, including probiotics,
prebiotics, whey proteins, and Yakult, are widely consumed by all age groups. However, older individuals,
particularly nonworking females and housewives, have
lower awareness of nutraceutical goods. The nutraceutical companies should enhance their marketing tactics,
create health-benefiting commercials, and consistently
reinvent their current products in order to draw in customers of all ages [87].
15.7 Conclusion
In summary, research on cosmeceuticals and nutraceuticals
indicates a significant convergence of the health and beauty
sectors. Nutraceuticals provide a range of health benefits,
including immunological support, illness prevention, and
cognitive enhancement. They include functional foods and
dietary supplements. On the other hand, cosmeceuticals
offer dermatological benefits like hydration, sun protection,
and wrinkle reduction. They are distinguished by sophisticated skincare and hair-care formulas. Because of these
domains’ cooperation, holistic approaches to both internal
and exterior well-being are presented, highlighting the connection between health and beauty. While future trends
indicate advances in research and technology, regulatory
issues present both opportunities and obstacles. In the end,
nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals have the potential to
revolutionize the wellness and beauty sectors by upending
preconceived notions and encouraging creativity.
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16
Pesticides and Allergens
Shatabdi Ghose1, Bedanta Bhattacharjee2, Damanbhalang Rynjah2, Damiki Laloo
1
Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Girijananda Chowdhury University, Guwahati Campus, India
2
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Girijananda Chowdhury University, Tezpur Campus, India
3
Phytochemical Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Girijananda Chowdhury University, Guwahati Campus, India
3
16.1 Introduction
Pesticides are chemicals developed to control or get rid of
pests that constitute a hazard to the land, human wellbeing, or agricultural produce. Classical synthetic pesticides
have long been successful in reducing these risks, but their
possible negative effects on unintended targets, soil fertility,
water quality, and human health conditions including allergies, eye infections, asthma, gastrointestinal problems, etc.
have led to concerns [1]. Human well-being has suffered
throughout time as a result of the improper usage of synthetic pesticides. According to recent estimates from the
World Health Organization (WHO), more than 25 million
individuals in developing nations experience acute occupational pesticide exposure and there are also nearly 20 000
fatalities globally [2]. The toxicological impact of this extensive range of synthetic pesticides on animals differs significantly. The use of multiple organochlorine pesticides is
limited in the United States. Specifically, their ability to
accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals and birds, as well
as their persistence in the ecosystem, are the main reasons
for their prohibition [3]. Aldrin, heptachlor, chlordane,
endrin, and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) are
among the pesticides in this category that have been
banned. These pesticides act as neurotoxins by modifying
the sensitivity of neuron terminals to K
alteration disrupts the electrical balance, leading to constant excitation of neuron terminals, which results in convulsions, seizures, and eventually, death. Human exposure
+
and Na+ ions. This
to organochlorine pesticides at doses ranging from 1 to
−1
50 mg kg
has been shown to cause symptoms such as lethargy, muscle twitches, convulsions, fatigue, cognitive
impairment, and loss of appetite [3]. Based on the research,
pesticides are the main source of poisoning in Asia, where
they are consumed either purposefully or unwittingly in
two of every three incidents of poisoning. Pesticides were
the primary cause of poisoning in adults, accounting for
63% of cases, while miscellaneous agents accounted for
45.0% of cases among children who were brought up to hospitals with poisoning cases [4]. The survey also showed that
North India, trailed by the South, Central, West, North East,
and East areas, had the highest prevalence of pesticide poisoning. Statistics on the application of biological and synthetic pesticides in several states and sectors from 2018–2019
to 2022–2023 are provided by the Directorate of Plant
Protection, Quarantine, and Storage [5].
Natural pesticides have come under investigation as a
result of the search for alternate remarks to these problems. Natural pesticides are substances created by bacteria, fungi, or plants as a means of defence against pests
and other predators. The organisms utilize these chemicals as a form of protection. Alkaloids (such as nicotine),
terpenoids (such as pyrethrin), and neem oil are forms of
natural insecticides [6]. Insects, fungi, and other possible
pests of the plant can be prevented or eliminated by these
substances. Natural pesticides can replace synthetic pesticides when employed in agriculture. They are frequently
seen as being safer for both people and the surroundings.
316 16 Pesticides and Allergens
Biopesticides have been essential for boosting crop quality
and production throughout the whole phase of agricultural growth by protecting plants. Biopesticides are capable of causing limited harm to the environment and public
health, though. They are often safer than chemical pesticides and are most appropriate for organic farming [7].
Since they are regarded to be safer than traditional pesticides, biopesticides have gained favor in recent years.
Biopesticides are less damaging than synthetic pesticides
because they are more targeted at the specific pests they
are intended to control. In integrated pest management
(IPM) programs, the usage of synthetic pesticides may be
reduced by the use of biopesticides, which may be applied
sparingly and quickly dissolve without generating any detrimental residues [8].
Contrarily, allergens are chemicals or proteins that often
appear in animal dander, dust mites, pollen, and some
foods, and they, in highly sensitive people, can cause allergic responses. Chemical pesticides and biopesticides can
both produce allergic reactions, which can appear as indications including itching, sneezing, dermatitis, watery
eyes, or more serious reactions like anaphylaxis in severe
circumstances [9]. The majority of organic pesticides come
from plants, which can also generate allergenic substances.
In the case of pyrethrin, a naturally occurring insecticide
made from Chrysanthemum flowers might cause allergic
responses in certain people. Additionally, those who work
in horticulture or agricultural activities may be more likely
to be exposed to allergies, particularly since they often
reach plants or goods made from plants [10, 11]. It is crucial to take into account that not all naturally occurring
pesticides cause allergies, and the chance of an allergic
response varies depending on the exposure levels and individual susceptibility. Due to the great degree of individualization in allergies, what causes an allergic reaction in one
person may not affect at all on others. People with known
allergies must thus be aware of possible allergens in their
immediate surroundings, particularly those linked to
chemical and biological pesticides, and take precautions
when necessary [12].
Sustainable agricultural methods that emphasize natural
processes, less synthetic chemicals, and biodiversity are
biodynamic agriculture and organic farming. Both biodynamic farming integration and organic farming rely heavily on biopesticides. In contrast to organic farming, which
uses biopesticides to comply with the demands of certification, diminish synthetic chemicals, promote biodiversity,
and maintain the health of the soil and crops, biodynamic
agriculture encompasses biopesticides by way of IPM, soil
quality enhancement, and holistic standards. Both strategies place a high priority on chemical-free, sustainable
agriculture [13]. The demand for biopesticides is expanding globally and provides a safe substitute for conventional
chemical pesticides. Although they only make up a small
percentage of the worldwide pesticide industry at present,
they are expanding at a stunning 14.1% annual pace. With
North America dominating in utilization, regions including Europe, Asia, and North America are reacting positively to this trend. The most popular biopesticides are
those made with Bacillus thuringiensis technology.
However, there are still issues with licensing biopesticides
in several areas, like the European Union and Nigeria.
Biopesticides are projected to hold a market share of more
than 7% in the global agricultural pest control industry by
the year 2023, and by the late 2040s or early 2050s, they
may even be competitive with synthetic pesticides. For
countries like Africa and Southeast Asia to cope with
uncertainty, enlargement of industrial representation and
research engagement are essential. The market for allergy
medications reached a size of US$ 20.3 billion in 2022, led
by an increase in immunotherapy and anti-allergy medicine consumption. The market is anticipated to develop at
a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.5% and
achieve a valuation of US$ 35.8 billion during the estimated time frame of 2023–2031 [14].
In this chapter, we will look at the potential, importance, and limitations of biopesticides and natural antiallergens. We shall discuss their functions in managing
pests and hypersensitivity, respectively. Furthermore, we
will go through the larger context of global market surveillance, industrial production, formulations, and regulatory concerns for assuring the quality control of both
biopesticides and anti-allergens. This thorough study will
shed light on the legal framework controlling the use of
these natural compounds as well as the potential uses
that they endure.
16.2 Natural Pesticide/Biopesticides and Natural Anti-allergens: Source, Bioactive Substances and Applications
16.2.1 Natural Pesticides/Biopesticides
16.2.1.1 Plant-based Biopesticides
Plant-based biopesticides are a type of biopesticide that is
derived from plants and is exploited for pest control in agriculture [7]. Plant-based biopesticides are made from plant
extracts and essential oils, which have complex chemical
compositions that make it difficult for pests to develop
resistance against them [15]. These biopesticides are effective against pests because they contain compounds that
16.2 Natural Pesticide/Biopesticides and Natural Anti-allergens: Source, Bioactive Substances and Applications 317
disrupt the pest’s nervous system, feeding behavior, and
reproduction [16]. The specificity of plant-based biopesticides, ensuring they exclusively target the pests they are
meant to suppress, is one benefit beyond synthetic pesticides, and their lower toxicity to non-target organisms [15].
They are also efficient in relatively fragile concentrations
and degrade fast, leading to reduced exposures while preventing the environmental concerns produced by synthetic
pesticides. However, there are also some limitations to
their use, such as higher production costs, difficulties in
Table 16.1 List of medicinal plants with their bioactive components used as biopesticides.
Common
name
Neem Azadirachta indica
Pyrethrum Tanacetum
Tobacco Nicotiana tabacum L.
Pyrethrum Chrysanthemum
Garlic Allium sativum L.
Chili
pepper
Turmeric Curcuma longa
Ginger Zingiber officinale
Aloe vera Aloe barbadensis
Poison vine Derris elliptica
Datura Datura stamomium
Biological source/
family
A. Juss.
(Meliaceae)
cinerariifolium
(Asteraceae)
(Solanaceae)
cinerariaefolium
(Asteraceae)
(Amaryllidaceae)
Capsicum annuum
(Solanaceae)
(Zingiberaceae)
(Zingiberaceae)
miller (Liliaceae)
(Fabaceae)
(Solanaceae)
Bioactive components Category of pests References
Azadirachtin; nimbolide; Nimbin;
nimbidin; salannin; meliantriol; and
azadirone
Pyrethrin-I; pyrethrin-II; cinerin-I;
cinerin-II; jasmolin-I; jasmolinII;pellitorine; n-methyl-isobutyl-2,
4-decadienamide; n-isobutyl-2,
4-hexadiynamide; n-isobutyl-2,
4-heptadiene-6-monoynamide;
n-isobutyl-2, 4-octadiene-6-monoynamide;
(2,4)-dodecadiene-n-tyamide; acetanilide;
and ancycline
Nicotine; nornicotine; anabasine;
anatabine; and Cotinine
Pyrethrins-I; pyrethrin-II; cinerin-I;
cinerin-II; Jasmolin-I; and jasmolin-II.
Allicin; diallyl thiosulfonate; diallyl
sulphide; diallyl tetrasulfide; dimethyl
trisulfide; and 3-vinyl-[4H]-1,2-dithiin
Capsicum; dihydrocapsaicin;
nordihydrocapsaicin; homocapsaicin;
homodihydrocapsaicin; vanillic acid;
caffeic acid; p-coumaric acid;
p-hydroxybenzoic acid; and ferulic acid
Curcumin; demethoxycurcumin;
bisdemethoxycurcumin, and curlone
Gingerol; 6-shogaol; neral; elemol; borneol;
citronellal; geranial; and linalool
Aloesin; acemannan; aloe-emodin;
barbaloin; isobarbaloin; and emodin
Rotenone; elliptone; deguelin; and
toxicarol
Atropine; hyoscyamine; and scopolamine Helicoverpaarmigera larvae and
production, and a lack of appropriate formulations [15].
Research is ongoing to improve the development and formulation of plant-based biopesticides. Synthetic biology is
being used to create stable active ingredients in plants that
can protect against diseases, insects, and weeds [17]. In
addition, improvements in formulation technology can
increase the stability and activity of plant-based biopesticides [18]. Table 16.1 presents a variety of plant-based
biopesticides, along with their bioactive constituents and
their effectiveness against different pests.
Whiteflies, thrips, mealy bugs,
leafminers, leafhoppers, lace bugs,
caterpillars, beetles, and aphids
Aphids, bed bugs, leafhoppers,
spider mites, harlequin cabbage
bugs, and pickle worms
Popillia japonica,
Triboliumcastaneum, Spodoptera
litura, and Nilaparvatalugen
Aphids, beetles, leafhoppers, and
certain caterpillars
Aphids, fall armyworms,
diamondback moth, false codling
moth, pulse beetle, whitefly,
wireworm, khapra beetle, mice, and
mites
Cotton bollworm, the diamondback
moth, and the green peach aphid
Aphids, grubs, caterpillars, and
mealybugs
Melanaphissorghi, Culex theileri, and
Oryzaephilussurinamensis
Mosquitoes and ticks [26]
Temephos-resistant Aedes aegypti
larvae
Callosobruchus maculatus
[19]
[20]
[21]
[20]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[27]
[28]
318 16 Pesticides and Allergens
16.2.1.2 Insect-based Biopesticides
Insect-based biopesticides are a form of biopesticide that is
derived from living species including bacteria, fungi, and
viruses that can infect and kill insects [29]. The application
of insect-based biopesticides in pest control is gaining
increasing attention due to their eco-friendliness and safety
[29, 30]. Ongoing research is working to improve the development and formulation of insect-based biopesticides,
including the use of synthetic biology to create stable active
ingredients and improvements in formulation technology
to increase their stability and activity [29]. Some examples
of biopesticides that are effective against insects include:
• Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt): This is a widely used micro-
bial pesticide that contains subspecies and strains of
the bacterium Bt. Each strain develops insecticidal
proteins that are toxic to certain insects [29].
• Entomopathogenic fungi: These fungi, such as
Beauveria bassiana, infect insects and cause them to
die within a few days. They function efficiently against
multiple distinct types of insect pests [31].
• Insect pheromones: These are mimickable molecules
developed by insects and used in IPM programs to
control insect populations. For example, the first
insect pheromone was registered by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) for use in the mass trapping
of Japanese beetles [7].
• Dysphania ambrosioides (Mexican tea) extract: This
plant extract is utilized for treating a variety of parasitic insect pests in tree nuts, grapes, citrus, and other
crops, including mites, whiter flies, leafhoppers, and
aphids [31].
• Kaolin clay: Although it is not derived from insects,
kaolin clay is a biopesticide employed in organic fruit
farms as an insect repellent. In 1999, it became economically accessible, primarily for application in
organic processes [31].
16.2.1.3 Marine-based Biopesticides
Marine-based biopesticides have gained attention due to
their unique properties and potential for use in sustainable
pest management strategies. Multiple phytoconstituents
have been reported to be produced by marine bacteria and
fungi with potential applications in various fields, including
pest control [32]. Formulation technologies and risk assessments are essential for ensuring the efficacy and safety of
these biopesticides. While there is limited information on
specific examples of marine-based biopesticides, some potential sources and their applications in pest control are
• Aquatic plants: Certain aquatic plants, such as hydrilla
(Hydrilla spp.), water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes),
muskgrass (Chara spp.), and duckweed (Lemna minor)
have been explored for their biopesticidal properties [7].
Compounds like eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), astaxanthin, and bromophenols found in various marine algae
possess potent pesticidal activity [7].
• Marine microorganisms: Multiple phytocompounds
have been reported to be produced by marine bacteria
and fungi, some of which may have insecticidal,
nematicidal, or fungicidal properties [33]. Chitosan
(from exoskeletons of crustaceans), tetrodotoxin
(potent neurotoxin from puffer fish), and secondary
metabolites from marine sponges are potentially active
sources of anti-microbial, anti-fungal properties and
act as natural pesticides [33].
16.2.1.4 Animal-based Biopesticides
Biopesticides derived from animals are included in
the broader category of environmentally friendly pest
management solutions. Animal-based biopesticides can
be sourced from a variety of animals and animal byproducts, amphibians, insects as well as from nematodes
[7]. Animal-based biopesticides are generally considered
safer and more environmentally friendly than conventional chemical pesticides [15]. Nematodes (microscopic
worms), bat guano (bat droppings), frog skin peptides,
cantharidin (toxin from blister beetles), venom (spider,
scorpion), fish oil, and emulsions are widely used for
their rich pesticidal properties. However, they may have
limitations in terms of cost, production difficulties, and
the availability of appropriate formulations [15].
16.2.1.5 Microorganism-based Biopesticides
Pest-controlling products developed from microbes, including algae, protozoa, viruses, fungi, and bacteria are known
as microorganism-based biopesticides. Microbial pesticides are a specific category of biopesticides that utilize
microbes as the active ingredient to control pests [34].
These biopesticides have been developed to control invertebrate pests, plant pathogens, and weeds in agricultural and
horticultural systems [35]. Some examples of pesticides
derived from microorganisms include:
• Bt: A bacteria that release toxic proteins used to con-
trol pests like caterpillars, mosquitoes, and other
insect pest.
• B. bassiana: A fungus used as a biological insecticide
to control pests like beetles, aphids, and caterpillars.
• Metarhizium anisopliae: It is a fungus that is used
as a biopesticide, to control pests like termites and
beetles.
• Nosema locustae: It is a microsporidian parasite that is
used to control pests like grasshoppers and locusts.
16.2 Natural Pesticide/Biopesticides and Natural Anti-allergens: Source, Bioactive Substances and Applications 319
• Saccharopolyspora spinosa (Spinosad): Spinosad origi-
nates from a naturally existing bacterium and is efficient in combating a broad spectrum of insect pests,
including caterpillars, beetles, and flies.
• Trichoderma spp.: These fungi are employed to man-
age plant pathogens, and they can be administered to
the soil or plant surfaces to suppress the proliferation
of detrimental fungi.
• Streptomyces spp.: Specific strains of Streptomyces bac-
teria generate compounds utilized as biopesticides to
combat plant diseases and nematodes.
16.2.2 Natural Anti-allergens
16.2.2.1 Plant-based Anti-allergens
Plant-based anti-allergens are becoming increasingly
popular as a natural alternative to traditional allergy medications. Bioactive molecules called polyphenols are
found in plants and are potent anti-allergy medications
that affect several physiological processes and immune
cell activities related to the allergic immune reflex [36].
Pre-clinical experiments have demonstrated the significant implications of quercetin, a flavonoid present in various plants, on cellular and humoral immunological
activities. Some of these sources include onions, kale,
strawberry, spinach, cauliflower, apples, grapes, etc. [37].
Overall, other plant-based anti-allergens and their bioactive constituents as demonstrated in Table 16.2 have
shown promising and effective natural alternatives to traditional allergy medications.
16.2.2.2 Insect-based Anti-allergens
Chemical substances derived from edible insects-based
products have been linked to several health advantages
[49]. However, it’s important to note that some individuals
may experience allergic reactions to edible insects, particularly in Asian and African countries where entomophagy
(the practice of eating insects) is more common. Allergic
reactions to edible insects have been described in both
atopic and non-atopic individuals, suggesting primary sensitization to insect allergens [50]. Although natural antiallergens derived from insects seem promising, further
study is required to comprehend their modes of action and
possible interaction with other allergens. Some of these
compounds include:
• Chitin and Chitosan: Chitin and chitosan are two
key compounds found in insects that have been linked
with various health advantages, including their potential as anti-allergic compounds. These compounds
have been studied for their ability to modulate the
immune system and reduce allergic responses [51].
16.2.2.3 Marine-based Anti-allergens
Marine-based sources are rich in bioactive compounds
with potential anti-allergic properties. Some of these compounds include:
• Chitin and chitosan: Chitin and chitosan, derived
from marine species such as crustaceans and shellfish,
have been explored for their anti-allergic effects. These
compounds have shown the potential to modulate the
immune system and reduce allergic responses [52].
• Seaweed-derived peptides and protein hydro-
lysates: Proteins hydrolysates and peptides are among
the many pharmacological substances found in seaweeds that demonstrate various health benefits,
including anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive
actions. Anti-allergic effects may also be exhibited by
these substances [53].
• Marine polysaccharides: Polysaccharides isolated
from marine species including algae and seaweeds,
have been investigated for their anti-allergic properties. These compounds have shown potential in inhibiting allergic reactions and modulating the immune
system [53].
• Marine proteins, peptides, and amino acids:
Various marine-derived proteins, peptides, and amino
acids have been studied for their anti-allergic effects.
These compounds may help reduce allergic responses
and inflammation in the body [54].
• Marine pigments: Pigments isolated from marine
species including algae, have been associated with
various health benefits, including their potential as
anti-allergic compounds. These pigments, such as astaxanthin and fucoxanthin, have shown anti-inflammatory
and immune-modulating properties [54].
16.2.2.4 Animal-based Anti-allergens
Animal-based anti-allergens are substances obtained from
animals that have been found to alleviate allergic reactions
or symptoms. Some of the examples of animal-based antiallergens include:
• Bovine Colostrum: The initial milk that cows produce
after giving birth is called colostrum, and it contains
an abundance of growth factors, peptides, micro and
macronutrients, and immunoglobulins (Ig) with
antibacterial action [55]. Its potential application as
a growth-enhancing, immunity, nutritious, and antibacterial supplement for infants of many animal species has been thoroughly explored [56]. Bovine
colostrums possess enrichment of growth factors,
antimicrobial peptides, and Ig which may contribute
to its anti-allergic properties [55].
320 16 Pesticides and Allergens
Table 16.2 List of plants with their bioactive components used as anti-allergens.
Common name Biological source/family Bioactive components References
Clove Syzygium aromaticum
(Myrtaceae)
Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra
(Fabaceae)
Arrow-leaf morning
glory
Aloe vera Aloe barbadensis (Liliaceae) C-glucosyl chromone; flavone, flavonol; and
Giloy Tinospora cordifolia
Neem Azadirachtaindica A. Juss.
Holy basil Ocimumtenuiflorum
Chamomile Matricaria chamomilla
Nettle Urtica dioica L
Gingko Gingko biloba
Feverfew Tanacetum parthenium
Onion Allium cepa
Xenostegia tridentata
(Convolvulaceae)
(Menispermaceae)
(Meliaceae)
(Lamiaceae)
(Asteraceae)
(Urticaceae)
(Ginkgoaceae)
(Asteraceae)
(Liliaceae)
Eugenol; Eugenyl acetate; α-humulene,
2-heptanone, and β-caryophyllene
18-β-glycyrrhetinic [38]
3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid; quercetin-3-Orhamnoside; kaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside; and
luteolin-7-O-glucoside
flavan-3-ol
choline, tinosporin, isocolumbin, palmatine,
tetrahydropalmatine, magnoflorine,
Furanolactone, tinosporon, beta-sitosterol,
giloinsterol, columbine, hydroxycdysone
Limonoids; nimbidin; and neem leaf glycoprotein [42]
Eugenol;carvacrol; rosolic acid; ocimumosides
A and B; and ursolic acid
Chamazulene; apigenin; and luteolin, [44]
Flavonoids; chamazulene; lignans; and rosolic
acid
Quercetin; myricetin; kaempferol; isorhamnetin;
luteolin; ginkgetin; Gingkolide-A; shikimic acid;
and ginkgolic acid
Parthenolide and pinenes [47]
Quercetin; kaempferol; isorhamnetin;
isothiocyanates; glutamic acid; citric acid and
malic acid; thiosulfinates; and thiosulfonates
[36]
[39]
[40]
[41]
[43]
[45]
[46]
[48]
• Egg white: Protein is abundant in egg whites including
ovomucin, ovotransferrin, and lysozyme, which have
been studied for their potential anti-allergic effects.
These proteins may help modulate the immune system and reduce allergic responses [57].
• Fish oil: Fish oil, derived from fatty fish including
mackerel and salmon, is a source of omega-3 fatty
acids, which have been reported to possess antiinflammatory and immune-modulating properties.
These effects may help reduce allergic responses in
the body [58].
• Honey: Honey has been used for its medicinal proper-
ties for centuries and has been studied for its potential
anti-allergic effects. Honey may help lessen allergy
symptoms, based on some investigations, but additional research is necessary to completely explore the
modes of action [59].
16.2.2.5 Microorganism-based Anti-allergens
Probiotics consist of living microbes that give the host health
advantages when ingested in sufficient doses. The most
common probiotics belong to the genera Bifidobacterium
and Lactobacillus [60]. For instance, Lactobacillus rhamno-
sus GG and Bifidobacterium lactis Bb-12 have been studied
for their potential to modulate immune responses and
possibly prevent the onset of allergies in children. Their
mechanism of action involves interaction with the gut
mucosal immune system, promoting a balanced response.
This balance may lead to reduced allergic sensitization and
reactions [61]. Organisms such as Trichuris suis (pig whipworm) and Necator americanus (human hookworm) have
been studied for their ability to regulate the immune system.
The presence of these parasites tends to shift the immune
response from a Th2 (allergy-prone) bias to a more balanced
Th1/Th2 response. Bacteria like Acinetobacter and fungi like