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2.4 Chemical Classification 21
2.3.1.7 Seeds
Seeds possess a notable abundance of lipids, proteins, and
sometimes alkaloids or other bioactive constituents. They
are used for their nutritional and therapeutic characteristics.
Seeds derived from plants, such as flaxseed, which is recognized as a source of omega-3 fatty acids, milk thistle,
renowned for its hepatoprotective characteristics, and fenugreek, used for its galactagogue attributes, are often
employed when it comes to plant medicine [30].
2.3.2 Examination of Macroscopic and Microscopic Characteristics for Identification
The analysis of both macroscopic and microscopic traits is an
essential procedure in the field of botanical research, playing
a pivotal role in ensuring precise plant identification.
Macroscopic aspects refer to observable characteristics such
as the form of leaves, their arrangement, the structure of
flowers, and the general morphology of plants. These traits
serve as preliminary indicators of a plant’s classification.
Nevertheless, microscopic analysis, which entails the evaluation of cellular structures and tissue organization through
the use of instruments such as microscopes, provides a more
in-depth exploration of the complex intricacies. This capability allows botanists and researchers to differentiate more subtle variations across species, particularly those that may have
visual similarities when seen on a larger scale. For instance,
the identification of closely similar species may be significantly influenced by the observation of certain trichomes or
glandular structures, which are only discernible through the
use of the microscope. The rigorous methodology used in this
painstaking approach guarantees accuracy in the identification of plants, hence providing advantages to several domains
like biodiversity research, conservation initiatives, and
medicinal applications [32].
2.3.3 Importance of Organoleptic Properties in Morphological Classification
The morphological categorization of plants greatly benefits from the inclusion of organoleptic traits, which
comprise sensory aspects such as taste, smell, texture,
and color. These characteristics provide prompt and easily obtainable data that assists in the first categorization
of plant species. For example, the discernible fragrance
of crushed mint leaves or the strong odor of garlic cloves
are identifiable sensory characteristics that may assist
botanists and herbalists in differentiating between various plant species. Furthermore, organoleptic characteristics often serve as indicators for the existence of certain
secondary metabolites, which may possess medicinal or
culinary importance. The sensory signals mentioned
function as a preliminary screening method prior to conducting more comprehensive morphological or microscopic analyses. Hence, the integration of organoleptic
evaluations serves as a valuable addition to conventional
morphological classification techniques, hence augmenting the precision and efficacy of plant identification
processes [31].
2.4 Chemical Classification
2.4.1 Division Based on the Primary Active Chemical Constituents and Major Classes
Crude drugs of natural origin can be classified based on
their primary active chemical constituents into several categories, each characterized by the predominant compounds responsible for their therapeutic effects (Table 2.1).
The following are some common categories.
Table 2.1 Classes of major/active chemicals in crude drugs.
Chemical class Examples of crude drugs Predominant active constituents Therapeutic effects
Alkaloids Opium
(Papaver somniferum)
Cinchona bark (Cinchona spp.) Quinine, quinidine Antimalarial, antipyretic
Coffee beans
(Coffea arabica)
Glycosides Foxglove
(Digitalis purpurea)
Oleander
(Nerium oleander)
Volatile oils/terpenoids Peppermint
(Mentha piperita)
Morphine, codeine, and thebaine Analgesic, narcotic, and
antitussive
Caffeine Stimulant, central nervous
system (CNS)
Digitalis glycosides Cardiotonic
Cardiac glycosides Cardiotonic
Menthol Antispasmodic, analgesic
(Continued)
22 2 Classification of Crude Drugs of Natural Origin
Table 2.1 (Continued)
Chemical class Examples of crude drugs Predominant active constituents Therapeutic effects
Sweet wormwood
(Artemisia annua)
Clove
(Syzygium aromaticum)
Phenolic compounds Grapes
(Vitis vinifera)
Onions
(Allium cepa)
Green tea
(Camellia sinensis)
Saponins Soapwort
(Saponaria officinalis)
Liquorice
(Glycyrrhiza glabra)
Lignans Flaxseed
(Linum usitatissimum)
Sesame
(Sesamum indicum)
2.4.1.1 Alkaloids
An extensive class of chemical substances found naturally
are called alkaloids that constitute a significant portion of
phytochemicals. Their alkaline properties and medicinal
effects are due to the presence of nitrogen atoms. Most
alkaloids are synthesized from amino acids such as tyrosine, lysine, ornithine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan.
These precursors undergo various transformations, leading
to the creation of numerous alkaloids with heterocyclic tertiary nitrogen structures. With approximately 20 000
known varieties, alkaloids are primarily plant-derived but
are also found in microorganisms, marine life, and terrestrial animals like insects and toads. Plant species containing over 0.001% alkaloids are considered alkaloid sources,
including Solanaceae, Fabaceae, Asteraceae, and more.
Alkaloids are classified into major categories such as indole
alkaloids, isoquinoline alkaloids, pyrrolizidine alkaloids,
tropane alkaloids, pyridine alkaloids, and steroidal alkaloids based on their chemical structures [33]. The following table contains the classification of alkaloids as per
chemical structure (Table 2.2).
2.4.1.2 Glycosides
Glycosides are organic compounds composed of a sugar molecule (glycone) bonded to another non-sugar moiety (aglycone), often with therapeutic properties and are found in
plants, animals, and microorganisms. Glycosides are classified as follows along with their sources and some examples:
Artemisinin Antimalarial
Eugenol, caryophyllene Analgesic, antimicrobial
Resveratrol Antioxidant, cardiovascular
Quercetin, allicin Anti-inflammatory,
Catechins, epigallocatechin
gallate
Saponins Expectorant, emulsifying
Glycyrrhizin Anti-inflammatory, antitussive
Secoisolariciresinol diglucoside Antioxidant, hormone
Sesamin Antioxidant
health
antimicrobial
Antioxidant, metabolic health
balancing
1. Flavonoid glycosides: Found in fruits, vegetables, and
herbs such as quercetin in onions and rutin in buckwheat [34, 35].
2. Cardiac glycosides: Derived from foxglove (Digitalis
purpurea) and oleander (Nerium oleander), used for
heart conditions [36].
3. Cyanogenic glycosides: Present in stone fruits like apricots
and almonds; release toxic cyanide when hydrolyzed [37].
4. Anthraquinone glycosides: Found in senna (Cassia
spp.) and aloe vera, used as laxatives [38].
5. Saponins: Abundant in soapwort (Saponaria offici-
nalis) and liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), used as
expectorants and emulsifiers [39].
6. Iridoid glycosides: Found in gentian (Gentiana spp.)
and harpagophytum (Devil’s claw), with anti-inflammatory properties [40, 41].
7. Alkyl glycosides: Present in quinoa (Chenopodium qui-
noa) used for cleaning and foaming properties [42].
8. Glycosylates: Present in cruciferous vegetables, such as
broccoli and cabbage, and renowned for its potential to
prevent cancer [43].
9. Isothiocyanate glycosides: Present in horseradish
(Armoracia rusticana) and mustard seeds, contributing to their pungency [44].
2.4.1.3 Volatile oils/terpenoids
Volatile oils, commonly referred to as essential oils, are aromatic compounds obtained from plants. Their categorization
Table 2.2 Chemical classification of alkaloids.
2.5 Pharmacological Classification 23
Alkaloid class Examples of alkaloids
Indole alkaloids Serotonin, melatonin Indole ring
Ergotamine, ergonovine
Vincristine, vinblastine
Isoquinoline alkaloids Morphine, codeine Isoquinoline ring
Berberine, palmatine
Sanguinarine, chelerythrine
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids Senecionine, seneciphylline Pyrrolizidine ring
Retronecine, heliotrine
Tropane alkaloids Atropine, scopolamine Tropane ring
Cocaine, ecgonine
Quinoline alkaloids Quinine, quinidine Quinoline ring
Cryptolepine, neocryptolepine
Piperidine alkaloids Nicotine, anabasine Piperidine ring
Coniine, γ-coniceine
Purine alkaloids Caffeine, theobromine Purine ring
Adenine, guanine
Steroidal alkaloids Solanine, solasonine Steroidal nucleus
Veratrine, cevadine
Imidazole alkaloids Histamine, carnosine Imidazole ring
Ergothioneine, ovothiol
Pyridine alkaloids Arecoline, arecaidine Pyridine ring
β-picolin, α-piperidine
Predominant chemical class/ring
structure present
is based on both their source and chemical composition.
These oils have been used for centuries due to their aromatic,
medicinal, and culinary properties. Terpenoids, a diverse
group of natural compounds predominantly present in
plants, exhibit a broad spectrum of biological activities.
Monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids, triterpenoids, tetraterpenoids (carotenoids), etc., are few of the subclasses of terpenoids [45–47].
2.4.1.4 Phenolic compounds
Phenolic compounds, prevalent in the plant kingdom,
exhibit a plethora of chemical structures that facilitate
their classification into diverse subgroups. Following are
the brief classification of phenolic compounds.
1. Flavonoids: These include flavones, flavanols, and antho-
cyanins, commonly found in fruits like berries and citrus,
as well as vegetables like onions and broccoli [47, 48].
2. Phenolic acids: This group encompasses hydroxyben-
zoic acids (e.g. gallic acid) and hydroxycinnamic acids
(e.g. caffeic acid). Sources include fruits, vegetables,
and whole grains [49, 50].
3. Stilbenes: Resveratrol is a prominent stilbene found in
grapes, red wine, and peanuts [51].
4. Lignans: Present in seeds like flax seeds and sesame
seeds, as well as whole grains [52].
5. Curcuminoids: Derived from turmeric (Curcuma longa),
curcumin is a well-known phenolic compound [53].
6. Tannins: Found in foods like tea, red wine, and some
fruits, contributing to their astringency [54].
2.5 Pharmacological Classification
2.5.1 Division Based on the Therapeutic
Actions and Properties
In this classification, crude drugs are categorized based on
the primary therapeutic action of their predominant active
compounds or their intended medical applications. The
following text listed some of the examples.
Analgesics: Opium
Antimalarials: Artemisinin [55]
24 2 Classification of Crude Drugs of Natural Origin
Anti-inflammatories: Curcumin [56]
Anti-pyrectics: Willow bark
Cardiotonic: Foxglove [57]
Respiratory agents: Ephedra [58]
Anticancer: Vinca [59]
Emetics: Ipecac [60]
Purgatives: Senna [61]
Bronchodilators: Ephedra [61]
Antirheumatics: Colchicum
The future of pharmacological classification of crude
drugs holds immense promise as scientific advancements
continue to unravel the complex chemistry and therapeutic
potential of natural compounds. With the aid of cuttingedge technologies like genomics and metabolomics, we can
anticipate a deeper understanding of the intricate interactions between bioactive components in crude drugs and
their pharmacological effects. This knowledge will pave
the way for precision medicine, allowing tailored treatments for specific conditions. Additionally, the integration
of traditional wisdom with modern pharmacology may
lead to the discovery of new drug candidates from natural
sources. Overall, the future will likely bring a more com-
prehensive, evidence-based, and personalized approach to
utilizing crude drugs for medical purposes.
2.5.2 Relationship Between Pharmacological Activities and Chemical Constituents
The correlation between pharmacological activities and
the chemical constituents of crude drugs is pivotal for
comprehending their therapeutic efficacy. Derived from
diverse natural sources, crude drugs encompass intricate
blends of bioactive compounds. Alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenolic acids among these compounds
interact with biological systems, thereby modulating pharmacological responses. For instance, alkaloids like morphine in opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) are potent
analgesics, while flavonoids in Ginkgo biloba enhance circulation and memory. The chemical diversity in crude
drugs allows for a range of pharmacological actions,
including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant effects (Table 2.3). Studying these relationships is
crucial for drug discovery, as it aids in identifying and harnessing the therapeutic potential of natural compounds
for various medical applications.
Table 2.3 Chemical classes and their notable therapeutic potential.
Chemical class Examples of crude drugs Therapeutic effects
Alkaloids Opium (Papaver somniferum) Analgesic, narcotic, antitussive
Cinchona bark (Cinchona spp.) Antimalarial, antipyretic
Coffee beans (Coffea arabica) CNS stimulant
Glycosides Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) Cardiotonic
Oleander (Nerium oleander) Cardiotonic
Volatile oils/terpenoids Peppermint (Mentha piperita) Antispasmodic, analgesic
Sweet wormwood
(Artemisia annua)
Chamomile
(Matricaria chamomilla)
Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) Analgesic, antimicrobial
Phenolic compounds Grapes (Vitis vinifera) Antioxidant, cardiovascular health
Onions (Allium cepa) Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial
Green Tea (Camellia sinensis) Antioxidant, metabolic health
Saponins Soapwort
(Saponaria officinalis)
Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) Anti-inflammatory, antitussive
Lignans Flaxseed
(Linum usitatissimum)
Sesame (Sesamum indicum) Antioxidant
Antimalarial
Anti-inflammatory, relaxant
Expectorant, emulsifying
Antioxidant, hormone balancing
2.7 Chemotaxonomical Classification 25
2.6 Taxonomical Classification
Crude drugs are natural substances obtained from plants,
animals, or minerals that are used for medicinal purposes.
They form the foundation of traditional and modern medicine and are classified based on their biological sources.
The taxonomical classification of crude drugs provides a
systematic way to organize and study these valuable
resources. In this article, we will explore this classification,
emphasizing the three main categories of crude drugs:
plant-based, animal-based, and mineral-based.
2.6.1 Plant-Based Crude Drugs
Plant-based crude drugs are the most abundant and diverse
category among crude drugs. They are derived from various parts of plants, such as leaves, roots, stems, fruits, and
seeds. The taxonomical classification of plant-based crude
drugs is primarily based on botanical criteria:
1. Family: Plant-based crude drugs can be grouped
according to their botanical families. For example, the
family Solanaceae includes plants like Belladonna
(Atropa belladonna) and Datura (Datura stramonium),
which are sources of alkaloids with medicinal
properties.
2. Genus and species: Within each family, plants are fur-
ther categorized by their genus and species. This
detailed classification is crucial as species within the
same family can have significantly different chemical
compositions and therapeutic effects. For instance,
Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolius, both belonging to the genus Panax, are known as different types of
ginseng with unique medicinal properties.
3. Part used: The specific plant part used for medicinal
purposes can also be a basis for classification. For
instance, Cinchona bark (Cinchona officinalis) is used
for its quinine content, while the leaves of foxglove
(Digitalis purpurea) are used for cardiac glycosides.
2. Vertebrates: Vertebrate animals with a backbone,
such as reptiles, birds, and mammals, can also be
sources of crude drugs. For instance, snake venom is
used for its anticoagulant properties and cod liver oil is
a source of vitamin D.
3. Specific organs or tissues: Some crude drugs are
classified based on the specific organ or tissue from
which they are derived. For example, ambergris is a
waxy substance obtained from the digestive systems
of sperm whales and is used in perfumes and
pharmaceuticals.
2.6.3 Mineral-Based Crude Drugs
Mineral-based crude drugs are derived from various mineral sources, including ores, rocks, and earth elements.
They are typically classified based on their mineral composition and properties:
1. Ores: Certain minerals are extracted from ore deposits
and used for medicinal purposes. Bismuth subnitrate,
derived from mineral bismuthinite, is used as an antacid and anti-diarrheal agent.
2. Earth elements: Elements such as sulfur, clay, and
zeolites are included in this category. For example, sulfur is used in the treatment of skin conditions and bentonite clay is used for its adsorbent properties.
3. Geological origin: Sometimes, crude drugs are classi-
fied based on their geological origin. Chalk, which is
composed of calcium carbonate from marine sediments, is used in medicinal preparations.
The taxonomical classification of crude drugs is a systematic way to categorize and study these natural substances based on their biological source, whether they are
derived from plants, animals, or minerals. Understanding
this classification is essential for the proper identification
and utilization of these valuable resources in traditional
and modern medicine [1, 62, 63].
2.6.2 Animal-Based Crude Drugs
Animal-based crude drugs are derived from various parts
of animals and can include tissues, secretions, and even
entire organisms. These drugs are classified based on the
type of animal and their biological source:
1. Invertebrates: This category includes animals with-
out a vertebral column, such as insects, mollusks, and
crustaceans. One well-known example is shellac, a resinous secretion of the lac insect (Kerria lacca), which is
used in pharmaceutical coatings and varnishes.
2.7 Chemotaxonomical Classification
2.7.1 Understanding of Chemotaxonomy
Chemotaxonomy, a branch of science that links the chemical composition of plants with their taxonomy, plays a vital
role in the classification of crude drugs. By analyzing the
unique chemical compounds present in different plant species, chemotaxonomy provides valuable insights into their
evolutionary relationships and medicinal properties. This
approach helps in understanding the relationships between
plants based on the chemicals they contain.
26 2 Classification of Crude Drugs of Natural Origin
2.7.2 Chemotaxonomical Classes of Crude Drugs
2.7.2.1 Alkaloids
Alkaloids are nitrogenous compounds found in various
plant species and are crucial in chemotaxonomy. Plants
such as Belladonna (Atropa belladonna) and Henbane
(Hyoscyamus niger), belonging to the Solanaceae family,
are rich sources of tropane alkaloids such as atropine and
hyoscyamine [64].
2.7.2.2 Flavonoids
Flavonoids are phenolic compounds widely distributed in
the plant kingdom. The presence of specific flavonoids can
aid in the classification of plants. For example, Ginkgo
biloba and Citrus species are characterized by the presence of flavonoid glycosides, such as quercetin and kaempferol [65].
2.7.2.3 Terpenoids
Terpenoids, including essential oils, are abundant in
medicinal plants and are often used for chemotaxonomical
purposes. The distinct terpene profiles in plants like
Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and Mint (Mentha spp.)
aid in their classification [66].
2.7.2.4 Phenolic Compounds
Phenolic compounds, such as tannins and lignans, contribute to the chemical diversity of plants. Plants like Oak
(Quercus robur) and Flax (Linum usitatissimum) are characterized by the presence of specific phenolic compounds,
aiding in their chemotaxonomic classification [67].
2.7.2.5 Glucosinolates
Glucosinolates are sulfur-containing compounds found
mainly in the Brassicaceae family. Plants like Broccoli
(Brassica oleracea) and Mustard (Sinapis alba) are rich
sources of glucosinolates, which are important markers for
their chemotaxonomic classification [44].
Chemotaxonomy continues to be a dynamic field,
unraveling the chemical intricacies of plants and refining
their classification. By understanding the specific chemical
markers within crude drugs, researchers can gain deeper
insights into their medicinal properties and evolutionary
relationships.
species over diverse global territories. This study investigates the ecological characteristics, climatic conditions,
and environmental variables that impact the distribution
and population sizes of certain plant species within distinct geographical regions. The use of this categorization
system is of paramount importance in comprehending the
breadth of plant variety, as it imparts valuable knowledge
about the ecological adaptations and evolutionary lineages
shown by distinct species. Through the process of classifying plants according to their geographic distributions,
researchers can get significant insights into the intricate
connections that exist between plants and their respective
habitats. Understanding this information is crucial for the
implementation of effective conservation strategies, since
it enables the identification of places with significant biodiversity and facilitates the prioritization of conservation
efforts in these regions. Geographical categorization, sometimes referred to as phytogeography, is an academic discipline that centers on comprehending the spatial distribution
patterns of plant species over the Earth’s expanse. This
study investigates the many elements that contribute to the
distribution patterns of distinct plant species throughout
different geographical locations. The categorization
method under consideration takes into account several factors, including climate, soil types, topography, and ecological interactions. This comprehensive approach enables a
deeper understanding of the reasons for the successful
growth of certain plant species under specific environmental conditions. Through the process of classifying plants
according to their geographic distributions, researchers
can get significant insights into the biogeographical realms
and territories that these plants occupy. The acquisition of
this information has significant importance in the realms
of biodiversity protection, habitat restoration, and the comprehensive comprehension of the wider ecological framework including plant species [68, 69].
2.8.1 Division Based on the Geographic Origin of Crude Drugs
The categorization method used in pharmacognosy, a field
dedicated to the study of medical compounds derived from
natural sources, namely plants, involves the division of
crude medications according to their geographic origin.
The present methodology classifies crude pharmaceuticals
according to their primary source locations or nations.
2.8 Geographical Classification
Geographical categorization, also referred to as phytogeography, is a subfield within the discipline of botany that
focuses its attention on the spatial arrangement of plant
2.8.1.1 Tropical Drugs
The aforementioned substances are pharmaceutical compounds that are obtained from botanical sources indigenous to tropical climates. These organisms exhibit optimal
growth and development in regions characterized by high
2.8 Geographical Classification 27
temperatures and humidity. Illustrative instances include
Cinchona, sourced from South America and used for the
production of quinine, an antimalarial agent, as well as
Opium Poppy, originating from the Mediterranean area
and utilized for the synthesis of morphine and codeine [1].
2.8.1.2 Temperate Drugs
Temperate medications are derived from plant species
indigenous to temperate regions, characterized by pronounced seasonal variations. Notable instances include
Belladonna, derived from Europe and North America,
which is used for the production of atropine, as well as
Ginseng, originating from Asia and utilized for diverse
health advantages [70].
2.8.1.3 Arctic and Alpine Drugs
The pharmaceutical substances in question are derived
from botanical specimens that exhibit optimal growth in
frigid, elevated regions. Illustrative instances include the
Arctic Willow, which is used for the production of salicylic
acid, a precursor to aspirin, as well as Rhodiola, which
serves as an adaptogen, both originating from Arctic and
Alpine locations [71].
2.8.1.4 African Drugs
The pharmaceutical substances in question are derived
from botanical specimens indigenous to the African continent. Illustrative instances include Khat, hailing from East
Africa, which is used for its stimulating properties, and
Hoodia, originating from Southern Africa, which is utilized for its capacity to decrease appetite [72–73].
2.8.2 Influence of Climate, Soil, and Environmental Factors on Medicinal Properties
Geographical categorization, or phytogeography, is an academic discipline that centers on comprehending the spatial
distribution patterns of plant species across the Earth’s
landmass. This study investigates the many elements that
contribute to the distribution patterns of distinct plant species throughout different geographical locations. The categorization system under consideration encompasses a
range of factors, including climate, soil types, topography,
and ecological interactions. Through its comprehensive
analysis, this system offers valuable insights into the reasons for the successful growth and development of certain
plant species within specific environmental contexts.
Through the process of classifying plants according to their
geographic distributions, researchers can get significant
insights on the biogeographical realms and territories that
these plants occupy. The acquisition of this information
has significant importance in the realms of biodiversity
protection, habitat restoration, and the comprehensive
comprehension of the wider ecological framework pertaining to plant species. The therapeutic attributes of plants are
significantly impacted by a range of environmental parameters, including climate, soil conditions, and other ecological components. The process by which plants make
secondary compounds is directly influenced by climate.
The chemical composition of plant tissues may be influenced by fluctuations in temperature, humidity, and sunshine exposure, hence impacting their medicinal efficacy.
Furthermore, the kind and content of soil are of paramount
importance. The nutrient availability in plants may be
influenced by various soil conditions, resulting in fluctuations in the concentration of active molecules. In addition,
it is worth noting that several environmental stresses, such
as drought or nutrient deficits, have the potential to elicit a
defensive reaction in plants, resulting in an augmented
synthesis of bioactive compounds. The complex interaction between plants and their surroundings highlights the
need of including ecological elements in the development
and use of therapeutic herbs [74].
2.8.3 Examples of Region-specific Crude Drugs and Their Uses
Crude pharmaceuticals that are peculiar to certain regions
are natural compounds obtained from distinct geographical places, each exhibiting distinct medical qualities. One
example is Panax ginseng, which is well recognized as
Korean ginseng and is a renowned botanical remedy originating from Korea and certain regions of China.
Historically, it has been conventionally used to enhance
energy levels, fortify the immune system, and enhance
general vitality. A further example may be found in
Cinchona bark, which is indigenous to the Andean area of
South America. Historically, this particular source of quinine has been used for the treatment of malaria. The pharmaceuticals that are peculiar to certain regions serve as
prime examples of the abundant variety of natural
resources and traditional knowledge that are closely linked
to certain geographical places. This highlights the need to
comprehend and safeguard traditional medical practices.
Crude pharmaceuticals that are distinctive to certain
regions are natural compounds obtained from distinct geographical locations, each exhibiting distinct therapeutic
characteristics. The medicinal benefits of these drugs have
historically been used in certain geographical areas. An
instance of this may be seen in Artemisia annua, which is
well recognized as sweet wormwood and is indigenous to
Asia, namely China. Artemisinin, a very effective antimalarial chemical, is derived from this source, which has been
widely used in both TCM and contemporary medicines.
28 2 Classification of Crude Drugs of Natural Origin
Another example may be found in Ayahuasca, a psychotropic concoction derived from Banisteriopsis caapi and
many botanical species indigenous to the Amazon jungle.
For ages, Ayahuasca has been used by indigenous cultures
in South America for spiritual and therapeutic purposes.
The aforementioned instances underscore the necessity of
understanding crude medications that are peculiar to certain regions, as well as their cultural, historical, and therapeutic relevance [55, 75–77].
2.9 Traditional and Cultural Classification
2.9.1 Division Based on Traditional Medicine Systems
Crude drugs have been classified based on various traditional medicine systems from different cultures around the
world. Here are some examples of classifications based on
traditional medicine systems:
1. Ayurveda: Ayurveda classifies drugs based on their
Rasa (taste), Guna (qualities), Virya (potency), and
Vipaka (post-digestive effect). Examples include, ash-
wagandha (Withania somnifera), amla (Emblica officinalis), and neem (Azadirachta indica) [78].
2. Traditional Chinese medicine: TCM categorizes
crude drugs based on principles such as Qi (energy),
Yin–Yang balance, and the Five Element. Examples
include, Ginseng (Panax ginseng), Astragalus
(Astragalus membranaceus), and Reishi (Ganoderma
lucidum) [79].
3. Unani Medicine: Unani medicine classifies crude
drugs based on their inherent qualities like hot and
cold, and their effects on the four humors (phlegm,
blood, yellow bile, and black bile). Examples include,
black cumin (Nigella sativa) and myrrh (Commiphora
myrrha) [80].
4. Traditional African Medicine: Crude drugs in
African traditional medicine are often categorized by
their use for specific ailments or rituals. Examples
include African potato (Hypoxis hemerocallidea) and
Rooibos tea (Aspalathus linearis) [81].
5. Native American Medicine: Native American medi-
cine relies on the classification of plants and herbs
based on their historical use, often related to cultural
and spiritual beliefs. Examples include sage (Salvia
apiana) and sweetgrass (Hierochloe odorata).
6. Japanese Kampo Medicine: Kampo medicine classi-
fies crude drugs based on their therapeutic actions,
such as warming or cooling properties. Examples
include Maoto [82].
2.9.2 Preservation of Traditional Knowledge in Classifying Crude Drugs
These traditional medicine systems have been developed and
practiced over centuries, providing valuable insights into the
use of crude drugs for various therapeutic purposes.
Preservation of traditional knowledge in classifying crude
drugs is a crucial endeavor with far-reaching implications
for both cultural heritage and modern pharmacology. This
knowledge, passed down through generations within indigenous and local communities, holds the key to understanding the diverse uses, properties, and preparations of crude
drugs derived from nature. To ensure the preservation of
traditional knowledge in classifying crude drugs, several
essential steps should be taken. Documentation is fundamental, encompassing the systematic recording of indigenous names, uses, preparation methods, and ecological
knowledge associated with these medicinal substances.
Such documentation not only safeguards the wisdom of
these communities, but also provides a valuable resource
for future research. Following are some techniques listed
for traditional knowledge of crude drug documentation.
1. Documentation and Ethnobotanical Surveys:
Systematic documentation of traditional knowledge
through ethnobotanical surveys is a primary technique. Researchers work closely with indigenous communities to record the names, uses, and preparation
methods of crude drugs [83].
2. Community-Based Archives: Establishing commu-
nity-based archives or digital databases managed by
indigenous communities ensures the safekeeping of
their knowledge and facilitates intergenerational
transmission [84].
3. Intellectual Property Rights: Legal frameworks,
such as the Nagoya Protocol, provide protection
against biopiracy, ensuring equitable benefit sharing
and recognition of indigenous contributions to pharmaceutical research.
4. Education and Capacity Building: Education pro-
grams within indigenous communities, often facilitated by organizations such as the Indigenous
Partnership for Agrobiodiversity and Food Sovereignty,
help pass on knowledge to younger generations.
5. Collaborative Research: Collaborations between tradi-
tional healers and scientific researchers, as witnessed in
studies on African herbal medicines, bridge the gap
between contemporary and conventional medicine [85].
6. Awareness and Advocacy: Initiatives by organiza-
tions such as the World Intellectual Property
Organization (WIPO) promote awareness about the
importance of preserving traditional knowledge and
its role in global healthcare.
2.10 Modern Analytical Techniques in Classification 29
7. Cultural Sensitivity: Ethical guidelines in research,
such as those outlined by the United Nations Declaration
on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, ensure cultural
sensitivity and respect for indigenous practices [86].
8. Policy Development: National governments, as well
as international bodies such as the World Trade
Organization, develop policies to protect traditional
knowledge and prevent its misappropriation [87].
9. Biodiversity Conservation: Conservation initiatives,
such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, protect
the ecosystems that provide raw materials for traditional medicines.
10. Research Publications: Journals such as the Journal
of Ethnopharmacology provide a platform for publishing research on traditional medicines, contributing to
the wider dissemination of knowledge.
2.10 Modern Analytical Techniques
in Classification
Scientists started to take advantage of the various opportunities presented by the physical correlations of the measured components at the beginning of the twentieth century.
They assisted in the development of ever-improving instrumental analytical techniques that allowed researchers to
address a number of issues with traditional analytical techniques [88].
2.10.1 Use of Advanced Analytical Methods
The previously mentioned new techniques are referred to
as instrumental analytical techniques since they are utilized to separate and identify various components. The
advancement and wide use of contemporary instrumental
analytical methods was greatly aided by the quick development of the computer and electronics industries [88].
2.10.1.1 Infrared Spectroscopy
The most straightforward, quick, and non-destructive analytical technique that does not require sample pre-treatment in advance is infrared (IR) spectroscopy. Furthermore,
in cases when sample pre-treatment is not necessary, no
extra reagent is needed for the analytical phase. In the IR
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, compounds may
be identified and their structures and functional groups
determined using IR spectroscopy. This process is based on
the molecule’s absorption of a certain type of light. Every
chemically unique molecule will have a unique absorption
pattern composed of the quantity and variety of bonds, as
well as the presence of various functional groups [89].
2.10.1.2 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
Certain conventional medications that include more than
trace levels of heavy metals are solely meant to be used
externally and could not have any harmful side effects if
taken that way [90]. The most popular technique for identifying metals in biological materials is atomic absorption.
If the concentration of the substance in the solution
exceeds the milligrams per liter range, flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is generally considered the mosteffective analytical method for samples that can be easily
gathered as solutions. Attaining a consistent precision of
approximately 1% can be enhanced by exercising extra caution during the preparation of standards and employing
slightly more time-consuming techniques [91]. Utilizing
carbon furnace atomization in AAS enables the detection
−1
of limits within the range of 0.1–10 ng mL
(equivalent to
1–100 nM for most biologically relevant elements) with
sample volumes ranging from 5 to 20 µL (Figure 2.1). These
Readout Device
Light Source
Atomizer
Figure 2.1 Analytical atomic absorption spectrometry. Source: Deepak Patil.
Monochromator
Chopper
Amplier
Fuel gas
Recorder
Oxidizing
agent
Sample
inlet
Analyte
Sample
container
30 2 Classification of Crude Drugs of Natural Origin
attributes render carbon furnace AAS highly appealing for
analyzing metals in enzymes and biological samples.
However, a significant drawback is that carbon furnace
AAS is a single-element method, necessitating separate
experiments for the determination of each element [92].
2.10.1.3 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry
The performance of plasma source mass spectrometry (PS
MS) has been consistently excellent for a very long time.
However, mass spectrometry (MS) is typically automatically linked to “soft”, low-temperature ion sources, as
though MS would only be capable of organic molecule ion
production and fragmentation at low temperatures (Figure
2.2). This is unjustified, especially given that PS MS performance is unquestionably superior in useful analytical
chemistry areas. The most-often used PS MS, inductively
coupled plasma (ICP) MS, has played and continues to play
a significant role in numerous domains of applied science
and research. ICP MS complements other ion source MS
types, such as electrospray ionization MS, and has made
remarkable strides in development in recent years [93, 94].
Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) employing either double-focusing sector
field (LA-ICP-SFMS) or quadrupole-based mass spectrometers (LA-ICP-QMS) has proven to be an effective imaging
(mapping) technique [95, 96].
2.10.1.4 Chromatography Techniques
Chromatography has a significant impact on analytical
chemistry and is a valuable separation technique in the
realm of food analysis.
1. Gas Chromatography
In gas chromatography (GC) column consist of stationary phase, either a solid packed inside a closed
tube or an immobilized liquid. The thermally stable
volatile components of a mixture can be separated
using GC (for instance, fatty acid methyl esters). The
sample is vaporized and introduced into the column
head during the gas–liquid GC process. The mobile
phase, which is typically an inert gas, transports the
sample across the column by using a regulated temperature gradient. On the basis of boiling point, molecular size, and polarity, the volatile components are
then separated [97, 98].
Fatty acids, triglycerides, cholesterol and other sterols, gases, solvent analysis, water, alcohols, and simple
sugars have all been determined using GC. Other substances that have been determined using GC include
oligosaccharides, amino acids and peptides, vitamins,
pesticides, herbicides, food additives, antioxidants,
nitrosamines, polychlorinated biphenyls, drugs, flavor
compounds, and many more [99].
2. Supercritical Fluid Chromatography
Supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) is a chromatographic method that employs a supercritical fluid as
its mobile phase. A supercritical fluid refers to a substance that exists above its critical temperature and
pressure, displaying characteristics of both a gas and a
liquid at this state. It is highly compressible and has a
low viscosity, which makes it ideal for use as a mobile
phase in chromatography [100].
SFC is similar to high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) in that it uses a stationary phase to
separate the components of a sample. However, SFC
offers several advantages over HPLC, including faster
analysis times, less solvent usage, more environmentfriendly features. SFC is used in various industries,
including pharmaceuticals, food and beverages, and
environmental testing. It is particularly well suited for
Plasma Gas
Auxiliary
Gas
Spray
chamber
Carrier Gas
Nebulizer
Sample
Figure 2.2 Analytical inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Source: Deepak Patil.
ICP Torch
Plasma
Peristaltic
Pump
Rotary
Pump
Interface
Turbo
Pump
Omega Lens
Quadrupole
Rotary
Pump
Detector
Turbo
Pump