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17
Comparative Phytochemistry and Chemotaxonomy
Prathamesh A. Marne, Anil T. Pawar, Amol A. Tagalpallewar, Akshay M. Baheti
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Health Sciences and Technology, Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT World Peace University, Pune, India
17.1 Introduction
The initial widely accepted classification for plants was
developed by Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus and is
known as the artificial system. Linnaeus also introduced the
binomial nomenclature system, which laid the groundwork
for modern nomenclature systems. Based on their traits,
organisms were assigned two names: genus and species. He
categorized living beings into three distinct domains: the
mineral kingdom, called as Regnum Lapideum, the animal
kingdom, known as Regnum Animale, and the plant kingdom, designated as Regnum Vegetabile. Based on the reproductive organs, or the number of stamens and pistils, he
further divided plants into 24 phyla. Six classes of animals
were recognized: Aves, Amphibians, Mammals, Insecta,
Pisces and Vermes. The four classes of minerals are called
Petrae, Minerae, Fossilia, and Vitamentra. During the initial
decades of the nineteenth century, there was a gradual transition from the Linnaean system to natural classification
systems. These new systems aimed to utilize all pertinent
data to organize plants into categories based on their overall
resemblance. The natural system of classification distinguishes between species according to their common morphology, genetic makeup, and evolutionary connections. It
is a well-rounded classification system because it takes into
account both an individual’s genetic makeup and physical
characteristics. In 1813, Augustin Pyramus De Candolle
introduced the term “taxonomy” for the first time. Its roots
lie in Greek, where it denotes the systematic organization of
living organisms. Specifically, “taxi” conveys the idea of
arrangement, while “nomos” pertains to law or rule [1].
It primarily addresses the naming, categorization, and
identification of plants. Following the release of Darwin’s
On the Origin of Species in 1859, biological classification
adopted evolutionary relationships as its foundation, giving
rise to classifications known as phylogenetic [2]. The information and data used in current taxonomy come from several fields of botany, including morphology, anatomy,
embryology, palynology, cytology, photochemistry, genetics,
and physiology. Earth harbors a vast array of plant species,
the majority of which offer significant benefits to humanity.
These plants exhibit considerable diversity in their habitats,
lifespans, morphologies, modes of nourishment, and reproductive strategies. Several scientists use various plants in
their research. Because of this, taxonomy is necessary to
promote improved communication and accurate plant
identification.
17.2 Chemotaxonomy
Chemotaxonomy, alternatively called chemosystematics,
attempts to classify organisms and distinguish them by
analyzing the differences among them and the resemblances between the biochemical compositions in them [3].
Chemotaxonomy investigates how chemical compounds or
groups of chemicals produced by living organisms are distributed among related or potentially related plant species
[4]. The examination of phytochemical diversity among
plants is the central concern of chemotaxonomy. Pioneers
in this field were individuals who utilized plants for medicinal purposes or recognized their significance in creating
334 17 Comparative Phytochemistry and Chemotaxonomy
substances, such as fish toxins, arrow poisons, and ordeal
poisons. “Folk taxonomies,” grounded in innate human
instincts and based on observable plant characteristics like
edibility, taste, color, smell, and medicinal value, have historically provided subjective foundations for classification.
These variations have been employed for categorization
purposes.
Chemotaxonomy is primarily divided into two categories: macromolecular and micromolecular. Micromolecular data relies on secondary metabolites (SMs), which
are produced by all living organisms. These SMs originate
from primary metabolites (PMs) and form the cornerstone
of this classification [5]. PMs are crucial for plant functions, such as growth, development, and strain adaptation. A key role is played by them in essential metabolic
processes like photosynthesis, nutrient acclimatization,
and respiration [6]. The biosynthesis pathways and chemical structures of SMs are helpful in classification since
they are often distinctive to taxonomically related organisms. It is possible to examine fresh or dried samples using
this classification method [7]. The simple working methodology of this classification approach gives advantages
over the morphological classification. Because chemotaxonomy uses sophisticated analytical techniques to detect
even minute amounts of substances, it has a higher sensitivity and an easier working methodology. Advanced analytical techniques, such as gas chromatography (GC),
high-performance (HP) or ultra-performance (UP) liquid
chromatography (LC), and capillary electrophoresis (CE),
are frequently employed alongside analytical methods
like mass spectrometry (MS), nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR), and near-infrared (NIR) spectrometry. The main
category of SMs, crucial for chemotaxonomy, includes
alkaloids, glycosides, phenolics, and terpenoids. In plant
taxonomy, macromolecular methodologies encompass
serology, amino acid sequencing, allozyme electrophoresis, and DNA or DNA/RNA hybridization, along with the
mapping and sequencing of DNA. Recognizing large
flowering plants is relatively uncomplicated, but distinguishing small flowers, especially those of grasses, presents significant challenges. The limited attention to plant
morphology has resulted in a shortage of skilled taxonomists. Additionally, obstacles to plant identification
include insufficient familiarity with classification principles, and terminology, as well as the absence of authentic
herbaria for comparison [8]. Accurate identification and a
steady supply of uniform plant material are necessary
to fully utilize the plants for commercial or industrial
purposes. To support economic activity, biologists, molecular scientists, and farmers must work together. Correct
plant identification and undoing of modifications are
fundamental to all of them. One of the key instruments to
address this issue is chemotaxonomy.
17.3 Chemical Markers in Chemotaxonomy
Two types of chemicals are produced by plant cells: PMs
and SMs. PMs occur to be essential in basic plant functions,
such as growth and metabolism. They include carbohydrates, which are sugars and starches that provide energy;
lipids, which are fats used for storing energy; and proteins,
which are essential for various cellular processes. In contrast, SMs, which originate from PMs, do not participate
directly in metabolic processes. This group includes phenolics, alkaloids, essential oils, steroids, and tannins [9].
17.3.1 Primary Metabolites
PMs are fundamental substances generated through metabolic pathways, playing pivotal roles in various biological
processes, such as cellular functions, development, and
reproductive functions. Major PMs encompass carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Plant PMs also
yield enzymes that are crucial for respiration and photosynthetic processes. Furthermore, PMs play indispensable
roles in constructing basic cell structures, including chitin
and peptidoglycan for cell walls, proteins for cytoskeletons,
and phospholipids for cell membranes. Nucleic acid PMs
form the essential components of DNA and RNA [10, 11].
17.3.2 Secondary Metabolites
Plant SMs are categorized into distinct groups based on
their chemical structures and functional groups. Terpenes,
sterols, carotenoids, phenolic compounds, phytoalexins,
alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, and hydrocarbons are
some of these classes [12].
17.3.2.1 Glycosides
An entity of glucose coupled to an aglycone makes up glycosides. The glycone (sugar), aglycone (non-sugar), and type
of glycosidic bond form the glycosides. The class of glycosides contain molecules in which a sugar moiety is joined to
an aglycone molecule by an O–, S–, N–, or C–glycosidic
bond. Glycosides are classified based on their glycosidic
linkages into O-glycosides, C-glycosides, S-glycosides, and
N-glycosides. O-glycosides, the most prevalent type found in
plants, have their glycone and aglycone components connected through an oxygen atom. C-glycosides are resistant
to hydrolysis because the glycone and aglycone portions
17.4 Methods in Chemotaxonomy 335
are linked by a carbon atom (carbon-based linkage). In
S-glycosides, the glycone and aglycone components are
linked by a sulfur atom (sulfur acts as a linker; aglycones
must have –SH groups). In N-glycoside, a nitrogen atom connects the glycoside’s glycone and aglycone components (the
aglycone must have –NH group) [13].
17.3.2.2 Alkaloids
Alkaloids represent the category of chemical compounds
that occur naturally and are characterized predominantly
by the presence of basic nitrogen atoms [14]. Approximately
20% of the SMs identified in plants are alkaloids. Amino
acids are the primary biosynthetic source of alkaloids.
Tryptophan, lysine, and tyrosine are examples of amino
acids that function as building blocks for nitrogenous SMs.
True alkaloids, including compounds like atropine and
nicotine, are characterized by the presence of a nitrogencontaining heterocyclic ring and are derived from amino
acids. On the other hand, proto-alkaloids, exemplified by
adrenaline and ephedrine, also contain a nitrogen atom
from an amino acid but lack its incorporation into a heterocyclic ring.
17.3.2.3 Terpenoids
Terpenes are composed of isoprene units containing five
carbons each. These units determine the classification of
terpenes. Monoterpenes are structured from a pair of isoprene units, yielding the molecular composition C
10H16
Sesquiterpenes, on the other hand, comprise three isoprene units, resulting in the chemical formula C
15H24
Furthermore, diterpenes are created from four isoprene
units, giving rise to the molecular formula of C
20H32
Triterpenes, composed of six isoprene units, exhibit the
formula C
. Compounds consisting of seven isoprene
30H48
units are termed sesquiterpenes and bear the formula
. Tetraterpenes, formed from eight isoprene units,
C
35H56
possess the molecular composition C
17.3.2.4 Phenolic Compounds
40H64
[15].
Phenolic compounds stand as a paramount category
among plant SMs, distinguished by the existence of one or
more phenol groups. Ubiquitous in plants, these compounds exert significant influence on their color, flavor,
and taste. The shikimate metabolic pathway offers a possible avenue for the synthesis of phenolic compounds.
Phenolic compounds are classified into flavonoids, tannins, and simple phenolics based on their structural features [16].
Over 4000 distinct flavonoids derived from plants have
been found to date. These are most frequently seen in green
plants, where they are mostly found as glycosides in the
stems, roots, leaves, and flowers. Flavonoids consist of two
benzene rings and are categorized based on the oxidation
level of the central ring. These categories include flavanones, flavanonols, flavans, anthocyanidins, and isoflavonoids, each characterized by its distinct chemical
structure [17].
Tannins are the category of naturally occurring polyphenolic compounds with multiple units, including
polyhydroxyphenolic groups or their derivatives. These
compounds can form complexes with other substances
such as minerals, cellulose, and proteins. Tannins fall into
two primary categories: hydrolyzable and condensed [18].
17.4 Methods in Chemotaxonomy
Chemotaxonomic studies employ diverse analytical methods to identify and quantify chemical compounds.
17.4.1 Chromatography
Chromatography serves as a valuable quantitative analytical technique, allowing for effective separation within a
reasonable timeframe. Chemotaxonomy utilizes various
chromatography techniques, such as column chromatography, thin-layer chromatography (TLC), GC, paper chromatography, ion exchange chromatography, gel permeation
.
chromatography, high-pressure liquid chromatography,
and affinity chromatography [19]. For volatile substances,
.
GC is utilized. Complex combinations of terpenoids and
alkaloids can be identified with significant advantages
.
from the use of GC-MS. For non-volatile and thermally
labile substances, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is effective. HPLC is also widely utilized in the
analysis of nucleic acids and phenolic compounds.
The number and composition of compounds within a
sample, whether they are fluorescent, volatile, or of a certain chemical nature, dictate the selection of sensitive and
rapid analytical instruments utilized in laboratory settings.
Because of the volatile nature of the compounds, gas is
employed as a carrier medium in gas-liquid chromatography (GLC), whereas liquid solvents are used as a medium
in TLC and HPLC because the compounds are soluble [20].
17.4.2 Spectroscopy
Spectroscopic methods are widely used to precisely analyze the chemical structure of an analyte. Each method
allows the molecule to interact with the electromagnetic
radiation. Chemical substances have properties to interact with radiation’s electric and magnetic characteristics.
336 17 Comparative Phytochemistry and Chemotaxonomy
To identify and describe these substances, scientists look
at atoms, bonds, functional groups, a core nucleus, a
molecular formula, and a molecular weight. NMR helps
to study molecular structures in detail. Infrared (IR) and
ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy help to find
functional groups and conjugated systems in organic molecules. Mass Spectroscopy (MS) accurately determines
molecular weights and structures by analyzing the massto charge ratio of ions. When combined with chromatography methods like GC-MS or LC-MS, the MS allows for
precise examination of intricate mixtures, aiding in the
detection of separate constituents.
17.5 Phytochemical Approach in Chemotaxonomy
17.5.1 Fatty Acids
ering gametophyte samples from 20 bryophyte species
found in Siberia. These organisms come from four groups
of mosses and four groups of liverworts. The sampling was
performed in the cooler seasons, particularly in April and/
or October. They analyzed the fatty acid (FA) content using
GC to obtain FA profiles. Thirty-seven FAs were identified;
these comprised dicranin, acetylenic monounsaturated,
and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). All of the studied
taxa belonging to the orders Dicranales and Bryales
included acetylenic FAs, with dicranin being the most
common FA. According to the results of the multivariate
discriminant analysis, a species’ taxonomic status and FA
composition are connected [21].
An extensive analysis of oils from 21 distinct Pinus species was conducted by researchers to identify those rich in
Δ5-unsaturated polymethylene-interrupted fatty acids
(Δ5-UPIFA). By employing GC-FID, GC-MS, and NMR
techniques, they thoroughly scrutinized the FA compositions, providing a reliable approach to ascertain the proportion of Δ5-UPIFA relative to total FA. Taxoleic and
bishomopinolenic acids were prevalent across various taxonomic groups, while pinolenic acid (PNLA) and sciadonic
acids were consistently present in all samples. Elevated
PNLA concentration was found in Pinus mugo, accounting
for 28.3% of the total FAs, whereas Pinus koraiensis displayed the highest total FA content at 66.8 g/100 g seeds.
Principal Component Analysis illustrated that species
belonging to the Pinus subsections could be clustered
together due to similarities in their FA compositions [22].
It is challenging to distinguish between several species of
freshwater green microalgae in the family Selenastraceae
due to their subtle physical differences. Many species in the
family cannot be distinguished from one another using the
diacritical features of traditional morphological classification. The application of chemotaxonomy, which depends
on fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) analysis, has effectively
resolved ambiguities that persist unresolved by other techniques. An investigation was conducted on eight genera
and 15 species of green coccoid microalgae using the direct
transesterification-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
(DT-GC-MS) method. Substantial differences were noted
in FA compositions among various strains and species. The
categorization based on strains elucidated 97% of the
observed diversity, whereas species differentiation contributed to 93% of the variability. Notably, the presence of the
C18 FAs 18:3ω3 and 18:4ω6 was identified as a distinctive
characteristic of the Selenastraceae family [23].
GC was utilized to assess the FA composition of 59 different genetic variants spanning 14 distinct Coffea species
sourced from various regions, including Cameroon, Ivory
Coast, Angola, the Comoro Islands, the Central African
Republic, Kenya, the Republic of the Congo, Mozambique,
and Tanzania. Within the chromatograms of these 59 genotypes, 18 peaks were detected. Notably, no single peak
could be attributed to a specific Coffea species or cluster
thereof. Consequently, only 10 FAs with relative abundances
exceeding 0.1% were considered for further multivariate
analysis. Among these, the prevailing FAs observed across all
species were palmitic, stearic, oleic, and linoleic acids [24].
The FA composition of 12 Brassica species (Brassicaceae)
was examined via gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GCFID) to aid in chemotaxonomic classification. Three distinct groups were identified based on the
ratios of C18 : 1 (n~7)/(n~9). The initial cluster encompasses
Brassica rapa, Brassica napus, and Brassica tournefortii, with
Eruca sativa closely associated with Brassica napus.
Raphanus sativus, Sinapis alba, and B. tournefortii form the
second cluster. The final group, consisting of Brassica nigra,
Brassica carinata, and Brassica juncea, displays no resem-
blance to the other species [25]. GC-MS analysis was utilized
to explore the FA content of seed oil from 23 Stachys
(Labiatae) species [26]. Primary constituents include linoleic
acid (27.1–64.3%), stearic acid (trace to 5.2%), palmitic acid
(4.3–9.1%), oleic acid (20.25–48.1%), and 6-octadecynoic acid
(2.2–34.1%). The latter compound may serve as a chemotaxonomic marker for the Stachys genus.
17.5.2 Alkaloids
Zhang and team conducted a study where 16 known compounds extracted from the ethanolic extract of Glehnia
littoralis roots were identified and characterized. These
compounds include three β-carboline alkaloids, five phenolic acids, four phenylpropanoids, three polyacetylenes,
17.5 Phytochemical Approach in Chemotaxonomy 337
and one FA. Among the compounds identified, (1S,3S)1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid,
(3S)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid, (1R,
3S)-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic
acid, (S)-phenyllactic acid methyl ester, (S)-phenyllactic
acid, salicylic acid, 4-hydroxyphenethyl alcohol, and
9-hydroxystearic acid haven’t been previously documented
in any Umbelliferae family species. Furthermore, isopimpinellin, catechol, and dibutyl phthalate were isolated
for the first time from the Glehnia genus. These findings
hold significant chemotaxonomic implications, offering
valuable markers for characterizing G. littoralis [27].
The Leguminosae genus Ulex is distinguished by the
presence of quinolizidine alkaloids, such as cytisine,
N-methylcytisine, as well as jussiaeiines A, C, and D. These
compounds are important in chemotaxonomy. In the
Menispermaceae family, isoquinoline alkaloids have prevalence and serve as a valuable tool in chemotaxonomy. A
rarely described pyrimidine-beta-carboline-type alkaloid is
particularly significant for the chemotaxonomy of the
Annona genus (Annonaceae). Tropane alkaloids have been
employed in the chemotaxonomic analysis of the pantropical plant genus Merremia (Convolvulaceae) [28]. Similarly,
within the Boraginaceae family, pyrrolizidine alkaloids are
important compounds that may act as chemotaxonomic
markers [29].
In a study assessing 34 species of Paullinia and related
genera for purine alkaloids (PuA), which are important
markers in chemotaxonomy, only Paullinia pachycarpa
exhibited positive results alongside the previously identified Paullinia cupana and Paullinia yoco. Upon closer
examination, it was discovered that theobromine was
detectable in the stem, leaves, and flowers of P. pachycarpa.
Notably, the concentration of theobromine in the stem cortex exhibited a significant increase toward the plant’s base
[30]. Chemotaxonomic investigations indicate that out of
all Sceletium species belonging to the Aizoaceae family,
only some of them possess the alkaloids of mesembrinetype commonly found in the genus. Therefore, precise
identification of the particular Sceletium species is essential to confirm the correct alkaloidal composition required
in manufacturing and assurance of the quality of products
utilizing this type of botanical substance.
17.5.3 Phenolic Compounds
Regarding the genus Aletris’s boundaries, there is a lot of
debate. Initially, the genus Aletris was classified under
the Liliaceae family within the order Liliales. Recent
studies propose that Aletris, alongside its counterparts
Lophiola, Metanarthecium, Narthecium, and Nietneria,
may require reclassification from the Liliaceae family to
the Nartheciaceae family within the Dioscoreales order.
Moreover, Aletris and Metanarthecium appear to be genera with distant relationships. It has also been observed
that Metanarthecium and Aletris are genera with distant
relations. These findings underscore the contentious and
intricate connections within the Nartheciaceae, particularly between Aletris and Metanarthecium.
The findings showed that Aletris spicata and other
Dioscoreales plant species share certain comparable components (5-hydroxymethyl furfural, apigenin). It is possible to identify (2R,3R)-2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-7, 40
-dimethoxyflavone, 5-hydroxy-7,8,40-trimethoxyflavone,
sinapaldehyde, 3-methoxy-4-hydroxycinnamic aldehyde,
4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzaldehyde, 4-hydroxyacetophenone, and amentoflavone as distinctive chemical components of the genus Aletris [32].
Upon examination of Stachys species flourishing in
Greece, it was observed that Stachys ionica exhibits a
unique chemical composition. While other Greek varieties
are rich in flavonoids originating from chrysoeriol, S. ion-
ica instead synthesizes derivatives of isoscutellarein [33].
Erucoides have a different flavonoid pattern from Diplotaxis
muralis, while Diplotaxis acris and Diplotaxis harra have
comparable flavonoid profiles. The flavonol composition
shows variation between Diplotaxis erucoides and
Diplotaxis muralis. In Diplotaxis erucoides, a notable characteristic is the presence of a –OCH
group at position 7,
3
accompanied by rhamnetin 3, 3-di-O-glucoside, and glycosylation mainly occurring at positions 3 or 7. Conversely, in
D. muralis, the –OCH
group is found at position 3′ (isor-
3
hamnetin compounds), with glycosylation predominantly
observed at position 3 [34].
Flavonoids are important markers for classifying different Iris plants. They have a basic three-ringed structure of isoflavone or flavone. Even though natural
flavonoids can be quite different, they typically have
sugar attached and O-substitution patterns. Within the
A-ring, prevalent occurrences of 5,6,7-tri-O substitution
or 5,7-di- substitution patterns are observed, with the
substitution of 6,7-methylenedioxy being a notable characteristic. Moreover, frequent instances of 2’- or ortho
substitution at 4’, along with 3’,4’,5’- tri-ortho- substitution and 3’,4’-, 2’,3’ - or 4’,5’-di-ortho-substitution are
observed in the B-ring. The presence of certain chemicals
could be suggested as a clue for sorting Iris species, which
could be important for classifying them. Notably, the
distinctive components of Iris include isoflavones and
their glycosides, with representative substances, such as
tectoridin, irilin B, tectorigenin, irilone, and irigenin.
The distribution pattern of isoflavones in Chinese Iris
rhizomes indicates that the majority of species in the
subgenus Limniris possess isoflavone aglycones rather
338 17 Comparative Phytochemistry and Chemotaxonomy
than isoflavone glycosides, with Iris tenuifolia, Iris lactea,
and Iris bungei standing out due to their exclusive content of isoflavone aglycones. Within the Limniris subgenus of the Iris genus, which includes species like I.
cathayensis, I. bungei, Iris songarica, I. lactea, and I. tenui-
folia, a distinctive occurrence of altered flavonoids
known as peltogynoids can be observed. These peltogynoids play a significant role as reliable taxonomic markers within this genus [35].
The existence of phenolic chemicals in Euphrasia species
(Euphrasia rostkoviana, Euphrasia stricta, and Euphrasia
nemorosa) gathered from the wild was investigated by
Gawenda-Kempczyńska et al. [36]. They reported that the
phenolic component concentration varies greatly amongst
the species of Euphrasia. The highest overall concentration
of polyphenols and flavonoids is found in E. rostkoviana.
E. stricta exhibits the highest levels of phenolic acids,
notably protocatechuic, p-coumaric, 5-O-caffeoylquinic, and
salicylic acid. These compounds serve as distinguishing
chemotaxonomic markers for this species. Specifically, salicylic and protocatechuic acid are predominant in E. stricta,
while 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid and ferulic acid are chemotaxonomical markers for E. rostkoviana and E. nemorosa,
respectively [36].
By employing phytochemical fractionation on the methanol extract obtained from Lysimachia. baviensis, researchers
have found a couple of new chalcone glycosides, such as
bavienside B and bavienside C, along with an original stilbene or crystalline compound identified as bavienside A.
The elucidation of these compounds’ structural features
was achieved through the analysis of NMR and HRESIMS
spectroscopic data. First discovered in a natural source, the
C-acetylstilbene and carbomethyl chalcone structures in
compounds bavienside A and bavienside C may serve as significant indicators for the chemotaxonomy of L. baviensis
[37]. Thirteen species of Trifolium (Leguminosae) native to
Poland were classified based on the presence of isoflavone
aglycones, which are pharmacologically active, including
formononetin, daidzein, genistein, and biochanin A [38].
Across various taxonomic ranks, such as family down to
species, compounds like naphthodianthrones (e.g. hypericin
and pseudohypericin), biflavonoids (e.g. amenoflavone),
flavonol glycosides (e.g. isoquercitrin and hyperoside),
phloroglucinol derivatives (e.g. hyperforin and adhyperforin), including xanthones, are known to act as distinctive
chemical markers for classification purposes [39].
The taxonomic classification of the extensive Drosera
genus has long been a subject of debate. To elucidate the
chemotaxonomic placement of 10 Drosera species, representing various subgenera and sections of the genus, the
researcher investigated their primary phenolic chemical
profiles. The investigation was specifically focused on the
flavonoid composition and derivatives of ellagic acid across
various species within the Drosera genus, that are Drosera
burmannii, Drosera hilaris, Drosera spatulata, Drosera adelae, Drosera petiolaris, Drosera montana, Drosera pygmaea,
Drosera aliciae, Drosera binata, and Drosera dielsiana. It is
noteworthy that all the members of the Drosera section
exclusively showcased flavonols of the quercetin type.
Drosera peltata displayed the synthesis of flavonols of the
gossypetin type, whereas D. binata synthesized flavonols of
the 8-methoxyquercetin type alongside quercetin-type flavonoids. Additionally, distinct flavonoid patterns were
observed in Dictyopygmea and D. petiolaris, belonging to
the sections Bryastrum and Lasiocephala, respectively.
Both Drosera species exhibited the presence of flavones of
the 8-hydroxytricetin type, while D. pygmea was particularly remarkable for its elevated concentration of flavones
of the tricetin type [40].
The family Anacardiaceae is known for having chemotaxonomic traits such as 7-methoxylated flavonoids [41].
The phytochemical composition examination of Psidium
guajava Linn. leaves resulted in the identification and characterization of eight triterpenoids, six guavinosides, four
flavonoids, and one lignan. Utilizing NMR spectroscopy
techniques, all chemical structures were elucidated and further corroborated through comparison with existing literature data. The findings indicated that close chemotaxonomic
links had been observed among the Myrtaceae, Asteraceae,
and Lamiaceae plant families. Guavinosides C–F emerged
as distinctive identifiers for differentiating P. guajava,
whereas guavinosides A–F could serve as significant markers within the Myrtaceae family in chemotaxonomy [42].
The chemical composition of three Amaranthus species –
Amaranthus blitum (AB), Amaranthus hybridus (AH), and
Amaranthus caudatus (AC) – were investigated using
LC-MS/MS (liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry). A total of 41 distinct compounds were identified, showcasing differences in both their occurrence and
levels across the species. Notably, flavonoid glycosides and
hydroxycinnamoyl amides emerged as the key metabolites,
facilitating the chemotaxonomic differentiation of each
species. The glycosides isorhamnetin and tricin were found
to be exclusively present in AC, providing valuable chemotaxonomic markers for this species. The majority of metabolites were shared by the AB and AH profiles but in
differing amounts. N-trans-feruloyl-4-O-methyldopamine,
dicaffeoylquinic acids, nicotiflorin, and adenosine are a
few of them. N-coumaroyl-ʗ-tryptophan and kaempferol
dirhamnoside, on the other hand, were unique to AB and
distinguished it from AH [43].
Researchers employed an HPLC-PDA system to assess
the utilization of Deguelia rufescens var. urucu, known as
“timbo,” and Deguelia utilis as sources of rotenone in
17.5 Phytochemical Approach in Chemotaxonomy 339
insecticide formulations. Hierarchical cluster analysis
(HCA) was employed to scrutinize the data. A linear relationship between these species was established by quantifying their primary rotenoids. For D. rufescens var. urucu,
the ratio of rotenone to deguelin concentrations is 2 : 1,
whereas for D. utilis, it is 1 : 0.8. These findings could aid
in the taxonomic identification of these species by helping
to differentiate them [44].
The stigma of Crocus sativus L. is highly prized as a premium spice because of its abundant chemical constituents,
including safranal, picrocrocin, a monoterpenoid glucoside, and the carotenoids crocetin and crocin. However, a
significant portion of saffron crocus byproduct is wasted,
as only the stigma is utilized commercially. To address
this issue, the researcher collected saffron crocus flowers
from 40 different regions across Iran. Following that, an
examination was conducted on both the outer floral components and the male reproductive organs utilizing highperformance liquid chromatography with diode array
detection (HPLC-DAD). This analytical approach enabled
the determination and measurement of seven essential
substances, among which are quercetin-3-O-sophoroside,
kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, safranal, crocin, and crocetin.
Three types of flavonol glycosides were found in tepal
(outer floral part) and stamen samples. It was observed that
the main type of flavonoid present in the outer floral parts
−1
ranged from 62.19 to 99.48 mg g
of kaempferol-3-Osophoroside. Comparatively, the stamen samples exhibited
lower flavonoid content than the tepals. The predominant
compound observed in the stamens was kaempferol-3-Oglucoside, with concentrations ranging from 1.72 to
−1
7.44 mg g
. Notably, none of the examined samples contained crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, or safranal [45]. The
examination encompassed the floral pigments of 70 Crocus
species, along with 43 cultivars and six hybrids that have
been generated. Crocus appears to have six flavonol glycosides and three malonated anthocyanins that are all unique
to the plant. As flavonoids were present in every taxon
under investigation and because these compounds were all
broadly distributed within the genus, they can be employed
as distinctive markers for this genus. Chemical structures
within the genus, especially the anthocyanins, have a
diverse distribution that makes it possible to employ them
as chemotaxonomical identifiers [46].
Analysis of Ficus deltoidea, a medicinal plant was investigated by LC-MS metabolomics to examine the effect of
varietal, geographic, and environmental factors. Seven different varieties displayed distinct chemical compositions
characterized by the predominant flavonoids identified in
the 85% methanolic extract. These varieties were grouped
into three main categories using PCA/HCA modeling.
Chemotype-a was exemplified by var. trengganuensis and
var. intermedia, chemotype-b consisted of var. angustifolia,
and chemotype-c included var. deltoidea, var. kunstleri, and
var. motleyana. Despite varying geographical locales and
cultivation conditions, the core composition remained consistent across these varieties. The differentiation of the
three chemotypes was facilitated by 15 flavone glycoside
markers. Schaftoside, isoschaftoside, and vicenin-3 were
identified in both var. trengganuensis and var. intermedia.
Oxypeucedanin hydrate, a furanocoumarin marker distinguishing var. intermedia from var. trengganuensis, was
observed in the UV chromatograms of all seven varieties.
Vitexin and isovitexin acted as distinct markers for var.
angustifolia and chemotype-c, respectively. Notably, var.
deltoidea (chemotype-c) could be further characterized by
the presence of rhoifolin [47].
A rapid reversed-phase (RP) HPLC method was
employed for the simultaneous separation and analysis of
flavonoids and phenolic acids in eight taxa of Plantago
(Plantaginaceae) found in Croatia [48]. Differences in the
concentrations of phenolic compounds were noted among
various species. For example, in P. lagopus, hyperoside lev-
els reached up to 0.020% of dry leaf weight, while in P. hol-
osteum ssp. holosteum, quercitrin levels reached up to
0.013%. Quercetin was detected in P. holosteum ssp. scopu-
lorum at levels of up to 0.028%, rutin up to 0.024% in P.
argentea, and caffeic acid up to 0.046% in P. coronopus.
Isoquercitrin was exclusively found in P. argentea, recorded
at 0.020%, while isochlorogenic acid remained undetected
in all analyzed species. Significant differences in polyphenolic compound levels among various Plantago species
were revealed by multivariate analyses like UPGMA
(Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean)
and PCA (Principal Component Analysis). These compound profiles show potential as chemotaxonomic markers, providing a comprehensive approach to exploring the
diverse genus Plantago. Among 20 different cultivars of ber
(Ziziphus mauritiana; Rhamnaceae), variations were
observed in the levels of gallic, vanillic, tannic, caffeic,
chlorogenic, cinnamic, and ferulic acids, underscoring
their significance as essential chemical markers for taxonomic classification [49].
The significance of phenolic acids and flavonoids in
chemotaxonomy is particularly notable when differentiating diploid taxa within the Achillea millefolium L. assemblage (Asteraceae) [50]. A chemotaxonomic investigation
was undertaken encompassing 16 distinct Vicia species,
comprising cultivated and wild variants. Ultraperformance
liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS)
coupled with chemometric analysis was employed to examine seed accessions within the Vicia genus. Across the Vicia
accessions studied a comprehensive total of 89 metabolites
were identified. When differentiating between Vicia
species, particular metabolites like FAs, flavonoids, and
anthocyanins were identified as notable chemotaxonomic
340 17 Comparative Phytochemistry and Chemotaxonomy
indicators. Notably, Vicia faba samples displayed increased
levels of FAs, whereas Vicia parviflora showcased the high-
est concentrations of flavonoids. Anthocyanins played a
pivotal role in discerning between Vicia hirsuta and Vicia
sepium [51].
17.5.4 Essential Oils
Six species of Gingidia from the Umbelliferae family, found
in New Zealand and Australia, were identified as having
important chemotaxonomic markers in the form of primary monoterpenes, such as β-phellandrene, limonene,
and γ-terpinene, along with phenylpropanoids like
estragole, (E)-anethole, and myristicin [52].
The researcher investigated the composition and chemical properties of four distinct types of blackcurrants grown
in Serbia: Ben Sarek, Ometa, Ben Lomond, and Ben Nevis.
These different cultivars displayed varying oil yields, ranging from 1.2 to 2.0% when buds were harvested at two distinct growth stages, with Ometa exhibiting the highest
output. Examination of the oils through GC-FID and GC/
MS methods revealed eight primary components: α-pinene
(1.6–5.4%), sabinene (1.9–38.4%), d-car-3-ene (13.0–50.7%),
β-phellandrene (2.9–18.0%), terpinolene (6.6–11.9%), terpinen-4-ol (0.9–6.6%), β-caryophyllene (3.8–10.4%), and
α-humulene (0.2–4.1%). The Ometa variety predominantly
yields essential oils abundant in sabinene, whereas the Ben
Nevis variety is distinguished by its production of δ-car-3ene type oils. Conversely, the Ben Lomond variety is distinguished by its high content of β-phellandrene in the oils it
produces. Finally, the oils from the Ben Sareks variety
exhibit an intermediary composition, showcasing elements
of both sabinene and δ-car-3-ene types with relatively low
levels of β-phellandrene [53].
The rhizome of Nardostachys grandiflora, acquired from
Jaljale, Nepal, exhibited an essential oil output of 1.4%.
Analysis of the oil identified the existence of 72 elements,
constituting 93.8% of the overall composition. In the essential oil from N. grandiflora rhizomes, there was 9.4% calarene, 6.0% nardol A, 11.6% 1(10)-aristolen-9β-ol, 7.1%
valerena-4,7(11)-diene, 5.6% valeranal, 7.9% jatamansone,
and 5.7% cis-valerinic acid. Remarkably, the chemical composition of the rhizome oil from Nepalese N. grandiflora
significantly differs from that of its Indian, Chinese, and
Pakistani counterparts. Additionally, 1(10)-aristolen-9β-ol
was confirmed to be present in the N. grandiflora oil [54].
The chemical makeup of essential oils from oleogum resins of Boswellia carteri (Somalia), Boswellia papyrifera
(Ethiopia), Boswellia serrata (India), and Boswellia rivae
(Ethiopia) was studied using GC-MS testing to identify
components that could be used as markers for classifying
these species. By analyzing GC-MS peak regions, the total
ion current peak areas provided accurate estimates of relative concentrations. The main diterpenic constituents identified in the oleogum resin oils from B. carteri and B. serrata
were isoincensole and isoincensole acetate, indicating similar chemical profiles. In contrast, the oleogum resin oil from
B. papyrifera was characterized by the presence of n-octanol
and n-octyl acetate, along with diterpenic compounds like
incensole and incensole acetate. Meanwhile, the primary
constituents in the oleogum resin oil from B. rivae included
hydrocarbons and oxygenated monoterpenes [55].
The essential oil derived from B. carteri was identified to
contain key components like α-pinene, myrcene, limonene,
and α-cedrene, comprising 15.1, 8.2, 18.2, and 6.1%, respectively. Through comparative analysis of the GC-MS profile
of B. serrata resin oil, similarities were found with the B.
carteri sample. However, the notable presence of methylchavicol (6.7%) and α-thujene (29.7%) distinguishes B. ser-
rata as unique chemotaxonomic markers. In the essential
oil of B. papyrifera, the main component was identified as
n-octyl acetate (63.5%), followed by n-octanol (17.8%) and
limonene (4.7%). Minor constituents included α-pinene
(2.1%), verticilla-4,7,11-triene (2.3%), incensole acetate
(1.7%), and incensole (0.7%). Analysis of the oleogum resin
oil of B. rivae revealed limonene (28.0%), 3-carene (15.7%),
α-pinene (13.3%), and trans-verbenol (5.8%) as the most
prevalent elements, which are indicative of their chemotaxonomic classification [55].
The primary components of the oils extracted from
Teucrium polium (Lamiaceae) and Teucrium montanum
were sesquiterpenes, constituting 64.3 and 72.7%, respectively. The predominant constituents were identified as
Germacrene D (31.0%) and d-cadinene (8.1%). In contrast,
the oil of Teucrium scordium ssp. scordioides was chiefly
characterized by the monoterpene menthofuran (11.9%),
thereby distinguishing this species from other Teucrium
taxa [56]. It is possible to distinguish between Pseudowintera
(Winteraceae) species using the sesquiterpene dialdehyde
concentrations [57]. Pseudowintera axillaris demonstrated
significant amounts (ranging from 2.2 to 6.9% of leaf dry
weight) of paxidal, whereas Pseudowintera insperata specimens showcased high levels (ranging from 3.1 to 6.9% of
leaf dry weight) of coumarate. In the New Zealand context,
Pseudowintera colorata samples collected from various
locations exhibited variable concentrations of polygodial
(ranging from 1.4 to 2.9%) and 9-deoxymuzigadial (ranging
from 0 to 2.9%).
Essential oils from four types of Thuja plants grown in
Poland – Thuja occidentalis “globosa,” T. occidentalis
“aurea,” Thuja plicata, and T. plicata “gracialis” – were
studied using GC and GC-MS methods. The examination
found 31 compounds in T. occidentalis “globosa,” making
up 96.92% of the entire oil. In T. occidentalis ‘aurea,’