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3.4 Biological Activity of Medicinal Plants 51
Binomial name/ family
Basella alba L. (Basellaceae)
Beta vulgaris L. (Amaranthaceae)
Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. (Brassicaceae)
Brassica oleracea L. (Brassicaceae)
Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth (Fabaceae)
Calophyllum inophyllum L.
(Calophyllaceae)
Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (Theaceae)
Capparis spinosa L. (Capparaceae)
Cardiospermum halicacabum L.
(Sapindaceae)
Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae)
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don
(Apocynaceae)
Parts used
Aerial parts
Bioactive compounds
β-carotene, lutein, neoxanthin, violaxanthin,
a
and zeaxanthin
Fruit Betanin, vitexin, and
xylosylvitexin
Seed Brassicasterol, progoitrin,
sinapic acid, sinigrin, and α-Linolenic acid
Leaf Glucoraphin, indole-3-
carbinol, isothiocyanates, selenium, and sulforaphane
Leaf Biochanin, cajanol,
cajaninstilbene acid, chalcone, longistylin, genistein, and pinostrobin
Leaf Calanolide A, chromanone
acids, and coumarins
Leaf Arginine, catechins,
glutamic acid, serine, theanine, and theophylline
Fruit Cirsimaritin, eriodictyol,
glucocapperin, kaempferol, and myricetin
Leaf Apigenin, caftaric acid,
cardiospermin, coumaroylquinic acid, chrysoeriol, luteolin, phloridzin, protocatechuic acid, and prunin
Leaf Carpaine, carposide,
chemopapin, choline, myricetin, myrosin, naringenin, papain, pseudocarpain, caricin, and xylitol
Root Catharanthine, serpentine,
vinblastine, vincristine, and vindoline
Folk uses Country Associated experimental studies
Detox [42] Western
Pacific Region
Anticancerous activity, antiviral activity, anti-inflammatory activity, anticholesterol activity, antiulcer activity, antihypoglycemic activity, and wound healing property [43]
Leukemia [35] Morocco Anticancer activity, antisterility
activity, antihyperglycemic activity, and anti-inflammatory activity [44]
Rheumatism [45] India Anti-inflammatory activity,
analgesic property, antitumor activity, and gastrostimulant property [46]
Diabetes, stomach ulcer [27]; and breast cancer [35]
Southern Nigeria and Morocco
Anticancerogenic activity, neuroprotective property, antidiabetic activity, anti­inflammatory activity, and cardioprotective property [47]
Measles [27] Southern
Nigeria
Anticancer activity, hepatoprotective property, anti-inflammatory activity, and antidiabetic activity [48]
Rheumatism [49] India Anticancer activity, anti-
inflammatory activity, antiviral activity, and enzyme inhibitory activity [50]
Breast cancer [35] Morocco Antidiabetic activity,
neuroprotective property, antiviral activity, immunomodulatory, and anticancer [51]
Diabetes [52] Uzbekistan Anthelminthic activity, cytotoxic
property, anti-inflammatory activity, antiarthritic activity, cardiovascular property, anticarcinogenic activity, and antidiabetic activity [53]
Arthritis [54] India Anti-inflammatory activity,
neuroprotective property, antiulcer activity, hepatoprotective property, antidiabetic activity, and immunomodulatory property [55]
Diabetes [27]; hepatitis [32]; and dysentery [56]
Southern Nigeria and Nigeria
Antihypertensive activity, wound healing property, hepatoprotective property, anti-inflammatory activity, antitumor activity, and anthelmintic activity [57]
Leukemia/breast cancer [23]
India Anticancer activity, cytotoxic
property, antidiabetic activity, and larvicidal property [58]
(Continued)
52 3 Folk Medicine as a Source of Therapeutically Important Drugs: Evidence from Ethnobotanical Investigations
Table 3.2 (Continued)
Binomial name/ family
Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck (Rutaceae)
Clitoria ternatea L. (Fabaceae)
Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt (Cucurbitaceae)
Cuminum cyminum L.
(Apiaceae)
Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae)
Cyperus rotundus L. (Cyperaceae)
Datura metel L. (Solanaceae)
Datura stramonium L.
(Solanaceae)
Delonix elata (L.) Gamble (Fabaceae)
Delonix regia
(Bojer ex Hook.) Raf. (Fabaceae)
Parts used
Bioactive compounds
a
Fruit Apigenin, bergamottin,
diosmin, eriocitrin, eriodictyol, hesperidin, limocitrin, naringin, neohesperidin, and spinacetin
Leaf Anthoxanthine,
hexacosanol, and stigmastone
Leaf Cucurbitacin I, p-Coumaric
acid, pinoresinol, and tiliroside
Seed Beta-pinene, p-cymene, and
cuminic aldehyde
Rhizome Curcumin,
desmethoxycurcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin
Leaf Dcopadiene,
D-epoxyguaiene, cyperene, cyperenone, cyperol, cyperolone, cyperotundone, rotundenol, and rotundone
Leaf β-pinene, α-phellandrene,
Z-β-ocimene, p-cymene, and oxidohimachalene
Leaf Scopolamine, atropine,
fastunine, and daturaolone
Leaf Lupeol, β-sitosterol,
prolycopene, protocatechuic acid, trans-cinnamic acid, chlorogenic acid, and cyanidin-3-gentiobioside
Leaf Kaempferol 3-rutinoside,
kaempferol 3-neohesperidoside, and quercetin 3-rhamnoside
Folk uses Country Associated experimental studies
Digestive [22] Nepal Anticancer activity, anti-
inflammatory activity, antidiabetic activity, and hepatoprotective property [59]
Piles [22] Nepal Antipyretic activity, anti-
inflammatory activity, analgesic activity, and diuretic property [60]
Diabetes [6] India Anticancerous activity [61]
Stomach [35] Morocco Anticancerous activity [62]
Breast cancer [23] Palestine Antitumor activity and anti-
inflammatory activity [63]
Smallpox [27] Southern
Nigeria
Analgesic property, antiviral activity, antihyperglycemic activity, antihypertensive activity, anti-inflammatory activity, antimalarial activity, cardioprotective property, cytotoxic property, gastroprotective, and hepatoprotective property [64]
Asthma [65] Lebanon Anti-inflammatory activity,
insecticidal property, anticancerous activity, antidiabetic activity, analgesic property, antipyretic activity, neurological property, and wound healing property [66]
Rheumatism [52] Uzbekistan Anticancer activity, anti-
inflammatory activity, larvicidal property, repellent property, analgesic property, and nematicidal [67]
Flatulence [68] India Anti-inflammatory activity and
antirheumatic activity [69]
Arthritis [70] India Larvicidal property,
hepatoprotective property, antidiarrheal activity, anti­inflammatory activity, antimalarial activity, anthelmintic activity, antiarthritic activity, and anticarcinogenic activity [71]
3.4 Biological Activity of Medicinal Plants 53
Binomial name/ family
Drynaria quercifolia (L.)
J.Sm. (Polypodiaceae)
Euphorbia hirta L. (Euphorbiaceae)
Ficus benghalensis L. (Moraceae)
Ficus religious L. (Moraceae)
Glycine max (L.) Merr. (Fabaceae)
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Fabaceae)
Guilandina bonduc L.
(Fabaceae)
Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.)
R.Br. ex Sm. (Apocynaceae)
Lawsonia inermis L. (Lythraceae)
Madhuca longifolia (L.)
J.F.Macbr. (Sapotaceae)
Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae)
Parts used
Bioactive compounds
a
Rhizome β-amyrin,
3-β-D-glucopyranoside, epifriedelinol, friedelin, and naringin
Leaf Aafzelin, euphorbin-A, B,
C, kaempferol, myricitrin, and protocatechuic acid
Latex Bengalenoside,
leucoanthocyanide, and phytosteroline
Bark Campestrol, eugenol,
isofucosterol, hexadecanoic acid, linalool, and n- phytol
Seed Daidzein, genistein,
glycitin, and malonyl-glycitin
Root, aerial parts
Glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhetic acid, isoflavones, and isoliquiritin
Shoot Bonducellin, caesaldekarin
C, caesalpinin, cassane furanoditerpene, and homoisoflavone
Leaf Conduritol a, gurmarin,
gymnemic acid, gymnemasaponins, gymnemanol, and quercitol
Leaf Castalagin, casuarinin,
C- glucopyranose, glycosidic ellagitannins, stachyurin, and vescalagin
Seed Arachidic, linoleic, myristic,
oleic, and palmitic acid
Fruit Astragallin, mangiferin, and
isoquercetin
Folk uses Country Associated experimental studies
Inflammation [22, 72]
India, Nepal Antifertility activity,
hepatoprotective property, anti-inflammatory activity, wound healing property, and antiulcer activity [20]
Asthma [27] Southern
Nigeria
Anthelmintic activity, anti­anaphylactic activity, anti­inflammatory activity, and antiproliferative activity [73]
Rheumatism [70] India Antidiabetic activity,
hypolipidemic property, immunomodulatory property, antihyperlipidemic activity, hypocholesterolemic property, and anti-inflammatory activity [74]
Diarrhea [22] Nepal Antidiabetic activity,
antiproliferative activity, wound healing property, anticoagulant activity, immunomodulatory property, anti-inflammatory activity, and anticancer activity [74]
Measles [27] Southern
Nigeria
Antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory activity, neuroprotective property, anticancer activity, and hypolipidemic property [75]
Respiratory diseases [52]; breast cancer [35]; and influenza [27]
India, Southern Nigeria, Uzbekistan
Antidemulcent activity, antiulcer activity, anticancer activity, anti-inflammatory activity, and antidiabetic activity [76]
Gastric trouble [22] Nepal Antidiabetic activity, anticancer
activity, anti-inflammatory activity, and antipyretic activity [77]
Diabetes, Oral [78] India Anti-inflammatory activity,
antiviral activity, antidiabetic activity, gastro and hepatoprotective property, antiarthritic activity, and anticancer activity [79]
Meningitis [32] Northern
Nigeria
Analgesic activity, antitumor activity, antipyretic activity, antiproliferative activity, hepatoprotective property, anti-inflammatory activity, and enzyme inhibitor property [80]
Joint pain [81] India Anti-inflammatory activity,
anticancer activity, hepatoprotective activity, and antiulcer activity [82]
Colon cancer [23]; and diarrhoea [56]
Palestine, Nigeria
Immunomodulatory property, anti-inflammatory activity, antiproliferative activity, and antidiabetic activity [83]
(Continued)
54 3 Folk Medicine as a Source of Therapeutically Important Drugs: Evidence from Ethnobotanical Investigations
Table 3.2 (Continued)
Binomial name/ family
Mimosa pudica L. (Fabaceae)
Momordica charantia L.
(Cucurbitaceae)
Ocimum basilicum L.
(Lamiaceae)
Onopordum acanthium L.
(Asteraceae)
Panax ginseng
(Araliaceae)
Papaver somniferum L.
(Papaveraceae)
Phyllanthus amarus
Schumach. & Thonn. (Phyllanthaceae)
Piper nigrum L. (Piperaceae)
Pistacia vera L. (Anacardiaceae)
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Fabaceae)
Portulaca oleracea L. (Portulacaceae)
Parts used
Bioactive compounds
a
Leaf Caffeic acid, cinnamic acid,
ferulic acid, and p-coumaric acid
Leaf Cucurbitane, momordicine,
and momordicoside
Leaf Estragol, eucalyptol,
eugenol, ocimene, and linalool acetate
Aerial part
Root, rhizome
Achenes, eudesmane, germacrane, and guaiane
Ocotillol, oleanolic acid, protopanaxadiol, and protopanaxatriol
Seed, pod
Codamine, codeine, narceine, neopine, laudanosine, and papaveramine
Root Ellagitannins,
gallocatechin, hypophyllanthin, hinokinin, isolintetralin, nirtetralin, niranthin, phyllanthin, phyltetralin, and phyllanthusiin
Fruit α-pinene, 2-β-pinene,
δ-3-carene, α-copaene, Caryophyllene, DL-limonene, and piperine
Gall Lutein, zeaxanthin,
resveratrol, stigmasterol, genistein, and daidzein
Seed Gamatin, keranjin,
pongamone flavonoid, pongapin, and pinnatin
Aerial part
Aurantiamide, caffeic acid, gentisic acid, oleracein A, purslane, and scopoletin
Folk uses Country Associated experimental studies
Cough [37] India Anticancer activity,
hepatoprotective property, antidiabetic activity, antimalarial activity, anti-inflammatory activity, and anthelminthic activity [84]
Diabetes [27] Southern
Nigeria
Antidiabetic activity, anticancer activity, anti-inflammatory activity, and antiviral activity [85]
Asthma [86] Southeastern
Serbia
Anti-inflammatory activity, antiviral activity, anticancer activity, antidiabetic activity, analgesic property, cardioprotective property, and immunomodulatory property [87]
Asthma [52] Uzbekistan Anti-inflammatory activity,
antiproliferative activity, antipyretic activity, analgesic property, cytotoxic property, and anticancer activity [88]
Smallpox [42] Western
Pacific Region
Anti-inflammatory activity, antidiabetic activity, cardioprotective property, immunoregulatory property, and hepatorenal protective property [89]
Asthma [90] Pakistan Antitumor activity,
antiangiogenic activity, antidiabetic activity, antiproliferative activity, antiarthritis activity, and anti-inflammatory activity [91]
Diabetes [29]; Hepatitis [32]
Sri Lanka, Northern Nigeria
Anticancer activity, anti­inflammatory activity, antimalarial activity, diuretic property, antidiabetic activity, hepatoprotective property, hypolipidemic property, and nephroprotective property [92]
Bronchitis [37] India Antiproliferative activity,
antidiabetic activity, antitumor activity, immunomodulatory property, cardioprotective property, and antiaging activity [94]
Respiratory diseases [52]
Uzbekistan Antidiabetic activity, antiviral
activity, and anti-inflammatory activity [95]
Rheumatism [96] India Antidiabetic activity and
anti-inflammatory activity [97]
Detox [42] Western
Pacific Region
Anticancer activity, anti­inflammatory activity, and neuroprotective activity [98]
3.4 Biological Activity of Medicinal Plants 55
Binomial name/ family
Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae)
Punica granatum L. (Lythraceae)
Rhamnus cathartica L.
(Rhamnaceae)
Rhus coriaria L. (Anacadiaceae)
Salix alba L. (Salicaceae)
Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. (Fabaceae)
Senna tora (L.) Roxb. (Fabaceae)
Solanum nigrum L. (Solanaceae)
Strychnos nux-vomica L.
(Loganiaceae)
Parts used
Bioactive compounds
a
Leaf Cinnamic acid,
caryophyllene, erucic acid, and uronic acid
Fruit Pelletierine, pedunculagin,
punicalagin, punicafolin, punicalin, and punicacortein A, B, C, D
Fruit Dendrochrysanene,
glucofrangulin A, and rumejaposide I
Fruit Cinnamic acid, epicatechin,
pyridoxine, pyrogallol, sinapic acid, syringaldehyde, syringic acid, and taxifolin
Leaf Caffeic, isoferuolic,
p-coumaric, salicin, salicinoids, and sisymbrifolin
Flower Anthraquinone,
auriculataosides A, B, epicatechin, and luteolin
Whole plant
6,9- pentadecadien-1-ol, Cis-oleic acid, and methyl-7-hexadecenoate
Seed Desmettianoside B,
khasianine, Soladulcoside A, solamargine, solanine, tigogenin, tigogenone, and timosaponin
Seed α-colubrine-
chloromethochloride, β-colubrine­chloromethochloride, Brucine, strychnine, and stryvomicine A
Folk uses Country Associated experimental studies
Dysentery [54] Nigeria Antispasmodic activity,
anticancer activity, hepatoprotective activity, antidiabetic activity, and anti-inflammatory activity [99]
Colorectal cancer [23]; stomach diseases, and laxative
Stomach diseases [52]
Palestine and Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan Anti-inflammatory activity,
Anti-inflammatory activity, anthelminthic activity, and anticancer activity (Maphetu et al., 2022)
antimalarial activity, antimutagenic activity, antigenotoxic activity, hepatoprotective property, anticancer activity, and antiproliferative activity [101]
Gastric ulcer [52] Uzbekistan Anticancer activity, antidiabetic
activity, anti-inflammatory activity, and cardioprotective property [102]
Diabetes [31] Turkey Analgesic property, anti-
inflammatory activity, anticancer activity, cytotoxic property, antidiabetic activity, neuroprotective property, and hepatoprotective property [103]
Diabetes [25] Bangladesh Antidiabetic activity, anti-
inflammatory activity, antihyperlipidemic activity, hepatoprotective property, nephroprotective property, cardioprotective property, antiatherosclerotic activity, and anticancer activity [104]
Yellow fever [32] Northern
Nigeria
Anti-inflammatory activity, antiviral activity, and analgesic property [105]
Osteoarthritis [106] Iran Hepatoprotective property,
analgesic property, anti­gastritis activity, antiulcerogenic activity, cardioprotective property, antidiarrheal activity, and anti-inflammatory activity [107]
Liver cancer [23]; and rheumatism [72]
India Anti-inflammatory activity,
analgesic property, antidiabetic activity, cardioprotective property, anticancer activity, and antidiarrheal activity [108]
(Continued)
56 3 Folk Medicine as a Source of Therapeutically Important Drugs: Evidence from Ethnobotanical Investigations
Table 3.2 (Continued)
Binomial name/ family
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Myrtaceae)
Tamarindus indica L.
(Fabaceae)
Trachyspermum ammi Sprague
(Apiaceae)
Trigonella foenum-graecum
L. (Fabaceae)
Urtica dioica L. (Urticaceae)
Vitex negundo L. (Lamiaceae)
Zingiber officinale
Roscoe (Zingiberaceae)
Ziziphus jujuba
Mill. (Rhmnaceae)
a
Source: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. [119]
Parts used
Fruit Betulinic, jambosine,
Root bark, fruit
Leaf β-pinene, γ-terpinene,
Leaf Choline, furostanol, and
Leaf Hecogenin, isorhamnetin,
Root α-terpineol, α-pinene,
Rhizome Camphene, bisaboline,
Fruit asimilobine, ceanothic acid,
Bioactive compounds
kaempferol, and maslinic acid
Furfural, heptanal, and octanoic acid
cis-myrtenol, o-carene, and thymol
trigoneline
myricetin, neoolivil, pinoresinol, and secoisolariciresinol
artemetin, carotene, casticin, friedelin, globulol, linalool, and sabenine
phyllandrene, zinzerone, and zinziberene
isoboldine, juziphine, juzirine, and norisoboldine
a
Folk uses Country Associated experimental studies
Rheumatism [109] and diabetes [(6]
Diabetes [111] Kenya Anti-inflammatory activity [112]
Cough [90] Pakistan Hypoglycemic property,
Swelling [113]; and colon cancer [35]
Common cold [86] Southeastern
Asthma [90] Pakistan Analgesic property,
Chikungunya fever [27]; asthma, and cough [37]
Asthma [52] Uzbekistan Anticancer activity,
India Anti-inflammatory activity,
India, Morocco
Serbia
Southern Nigeria, India
neuropsycho-pharmacological, antileishmanial activity, antidiarrheal activity, antifertility activity, anorexigenic property, gastroprotective, and antiulcerogenic activity [110]
anti-inflammatory activity, and antihypertensive activity [78]
Anti-inflammatory activity, anticancer activity, hypercholestrolaemic property, and antidiabetic activity [114]
Antiviral activity, anti­inflammatory activity, antidiabetic activity, cardioprotective property, analgesic property, antiarthritic activity, and anticancer activity [115]
hepatoprotective property, anti-inflammatory activity, anticancer activity, and cytotoxic property [116]
Anticancer activity, anti­inflammatory activity, antiapoptotic activity, antihyperglycemic activity, antihyperlipidemic activity, and antiemetic activity [117]
antihyperlipidemic activity, sedative, hepatoprotective property, antihyperglycemic activity, and antiviral activity [118]
raising specific and non-specific antitumor immunity in man­kind [129]. Andrographis paniculata is an incredibly potent plant with a chemoprotective drug that has shown its effec­tiveness against various viral and cancerous agents. It is capa­ble of triggering both variants of immune responses. Curcumin, the primary constituent of Curcuma longa, has been found to acquire miraculous properties that make it a highly sought-after natural remedy. Studies have shown that curcumin can decrease cyclooxygenase expression in human
colorectal adenocarcinoma cell lines when treated with vari­ous concentrations of curcumin. This makes curcumin an excellent natural remedy to fight colon cancer [130].
Garlic has undisputedly demonstrated its potential to retard the growth of tumors and significantly reduce the frequency of spontaneously occurring tumors. The active natural chemi­cal constituents of garlic have been found to effectively impede the action of a wide range of cancer-inducing cells during the process of initiation and promotion phases of carcinogenesis.
3.4 Biological Activity of Medicinal Plants 57
Furthermore, there is overwhelming evidence that these chemical constituents in garlic are capable of modulating spe­cific and nonspecific anti-tumor immunity, leaving no doubt about its anticancer properties [129]. The ethnic communities in the Fez-Meknes region of Morocco use some medicinal plants like Nigella sativa, Pinus halepensis, Aristolochia longa,
Allium sativum, Peganum harmala, Berberis hispanica, and Marrubium vulgare in the treatment of cancer [35].

3.4.2 Antidiabetic Activity

Diabetes is a chronic disease that stems from the body’s inability to produce insulin or effectively utilize it, which leads to elevated blood sugar levels. Type I diabetes is characterized by the insufficient production of insulin, while type II diabetes is marked by the inability to prop­erly utilize insulin. Effective management of diabetes requires strict monitoring of blood glucose levels and consistent adherence to a treatment regimen. While there is no cure for diabetes, lifestyle modifications, including regular physical activity and dietary changes, are essen­tial for managing the condition. There are several ethno­medicinal plants that have been traditionally used by ethnic people to help control diabetes or lower blood sugar levels. Plants are naturally composed of several antidiabetic agents like phenolic, tannins, alkaloids, and flavonoids that help to manage diabetes by targeting mul­tiple mechanisms involved in glucose metabolism and insulin regulation [131]. Ethnic people worldwide have long relied on medicinal plants to manage various ail­ments, including diabetes.
Ethnobotanical explorations often lead to the discovery of novel bioactive compounds with potential antidiabetic effects. Indigenous communities possess valuable knowl­edge about local plants and their therapeutic properties, leading scientific research into new drug candidates of natural sources for diabetes treatment. Plants like Momordica charantia and Gymnema sylvestre, are reported to have bioactive compounds with antidiabetic properties, such as charantin and gymnemic acids, respectively. Consumption of natural foods like vegetables, whole grains, and fruits under proper diet plans, is inversely related to the inception of diabetes [132].

3.4.3 Gastrointestinal Disorders

The anatomical hollow tube that originates from the mouth and ends in the anus is the gastrointestinal tract. The gastro­intestinal tract is a complex system that requires coordination between various organs and processes to confirm the enhanced digestion and active absorption of nutrients, as well as the elimination of waste products [54]. However, it is
also prone to numerous ailments, ranging from mild to severe, which can have a significant impact on one’s overall health. Disorders or diseases affecting any part of the gastro­intestinal tract can lead to digestive problems and nutritional deficiencies. Some common gastrointestinal disorders/ail­ments are gastroesophageal reflux disease, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel diseases, liver disorders, and gallstones. Although there are several drugs available for these issues, they often result in deterioration and side effects, making them less than ideal for long-term use. It is imperative for researchers to investigate the potential benefits of medicinal plants in treating gastrointestinal disorders. By doing so, a safe and effective treatment option can be provided to the person suffering from gastrointestinal disorders.
There are numerous traditional medicinal approaches practiced by ethnic communities around the world that give relief from gastrointestinal disorders. In India, the usage of traditional medicinal plants to treat various ail­ments is a testament to the effectiveness of natural reme­dies. With Siddha, Unani, and Ayurveda, along with countless folk medicines, plants are utilized to cure a range of ailments, including gastrointestinal diseases. By har­nessing the power of nature, individuals can find relief from common ailments without resorting to harsh chemi­cals or synthetic drugs. Embrace the natural healing power of plants and discover the many benefits of traditional Indian medicine. For example, some common medicinal herbs are ginger, peppermint, turmeric, licorice, and aloe. Incorporating these herbs can help alleviate symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, and indigestion. Medicinals are being inevitable since ancient times. Culinary herbs like mint, basil, and cilantro are common additions to dishes in Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, and South Asian cuisines, where they help stimulate digestion and alleviate gastrointestinal symptoms, and chemical compounds like tannins present in the medicinal herbs help to retard the gastric secretions [22].
Aloctin A is a natural glycoprotein derived from the leaves of Aloe vera, and has been scientifically proven to help reduce pepsin, acid, and gastric juice output in rats with a ligated pylorus. Not only that, but it has been shown to be effective in preventing Shay ulcers and gastric lesions caused by indomethacin. With such impressive results, Aloctin A is a natural, safe, and effective option for those looking to support their digestive health [133]. Ginger, a well-recognized spice, is a vital ingredient in various medic­inal formulations used in different systems of medicine. It garnered significant attention for its exceptional carmina­tive properties, which can aid in alleviating gas and bloat­ing. Furthermore, ginger has been shown to offer a range of digestive benefits, including decreasing the pressure on the lower food pipe, preventing dyspepsia, lessening intestinal
58 3 Folk Medicine as a Source of Therapeutically Important Drugs: Evidence from Ethnobotanical Investigations
cramps, and reducing flatulence that is caused by bloating. Ginger is a versatile spice with an impressive range of medicinal properties that have been recognized by numer­ous cultures throughout history.

3.4.4 Respiratory Disorders

The respiratory disorder includes several pathological con­ditions that involve in affecting the organs and tissues involved in respiration. These disorders may range from acute infections to chronic diseases, posing significant health challenges to individuals worldwide [86]. Another alarming threat causing respiratory diseases is bioaerosols, which refer to tiny airborne particles that can be harmful to human health. Exposure to these particles can cause a range of reactions, including hypersensitivity, irritation, inflammation, and even infectious diseases. Fungal spores, in particular, are known to be persistent bioaerosols that can survive under different environmental conditions. According to Gadomski’s study [134], administering anti­biotics in order to prevent bacterial complications associ­ated with common colds and influenza has been found to yield meager-to-no efficacy. Ethnomedicinal plants have been used by ethnic communities from ancient times in folkloric medicinal practice worldwide to cure various ail­ments, including respiratory disorders. Many plant-derived compounds have shown promising therapeutic effects in managing respiratory conditions, and they often serve as an alternative approach to synthetic drugs [37].
There are more than 200 viral serotypes as causes of colds, and it is very difficult to combat the target-specific synthetic drugs that necessitate the need for combinatory herbal for­mulations with more synergetic effects and minimal risk of side effects. A leaf is the majorly used part in the table recorded, as it is regarded to be the place of conglomeration for various phytochemicals like glycosides, steroids, alka­loids, tannins, and saponins used in the majority of the herbal preparations. Medicinal plants enriched in bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, terpenoids, and flavonoids exhibit potent anti-inflammatory properties.

3.4.5 Antiviral Activity

The infectious diseases caused by the pathogenic virus are regarded to be ubiquitous over various internal and exter­nal organs of the body, such as the skin, respiratory tract, central nervous system, and gastrointestinal tract. With the growing pace of urbanization and increased global travel, people are becoming more prone to viral infections as the viruses migrate through respiratory droplets, direct con­tact, contaminated surfaces, and vector-borne routes [135].
The development of multi-drug resistant strains and the limitations of conventional antiviral therapies have spurred interest in alternative treatments, including medicinal plants. Many indigenous communities around the world have their own traditional healing practices for managing viral infections with zero side effects.
Ethnic cultural practices and beliefs surrounding tradi­tional ethnomedicine must be integrated into modern healthcare approaches to impart a healthy lifestyle to man­kind [136]. There are various antiviral compounds isolated from natural sources with potent efficacy. Medicinal plants like G. glabra, Zingiber officinale, Carica papaya, Azadirachta indica, A. paniculata, are said to possess anti­viral compounds like glycyrrhizin, gingerol, shogaol, myri­cetin, emodin, andrographolide, rosmarinic acid, allicin, terpenoids, flavonoids, and anthocyanins that are capable with immune-stimulating properties and also terminate viral replications. These therapeutic compounds are active against disease-causing viruses [32, 136].
Plants possess a wide range of medicinal capabilities that stem from their complex secondary metabolism. While natural herbal drugs in the form of decoctions, crude extracts, and infusions may seem like a simple solution, the true efficacy of plant-based chemical compounds can only be fully realized when they are administered in their purest possible forms or when they are combined to form com­pound drugs. There is an extensive list of chemical com­pounds that have been isolated from plants that exhibit potent antiviral properties. Therefore, it is important to understand the complexities of plant-based chemical com­pounds and their potential to provide effective solutions to various medical conditions. Licorice (G. glabra) plant con­tains glycyrrhizin and its derivatives, which give it a sweet taste and are regarded to express antiviral properties. Further investigation is essential to confirm its potential antiviral effects in humans, but this plant holds promise as a potential treatment against viral infections.

3.4.6 Anti-inflammatory Activity

Inflammation is the response to any external stimuli like injury, infection, or tissue damage by the body’s tissues. This abnormal or excessive inflammation in inflammatory disease is a response to dysregulated, chronic, or directed against healthy tissues, leading to tissue damage, dysfunction, and a wide range of clinical manifestations. Inflammatory responses are crucial for every living organism as defense mechanisms to maintain a healthy lifestyle. These reactions are responsible for activating live cells to eradicate destructive agents and remove injured tissues, thereby promoting healing and recov­ery. The effectiveness of the inflammatory stimuli is attributed
59References
to the onset of secreting various mediators, which play a vital role in initiating, progressing, persisting, regulating, and resolving inflammation effects.
Inflammation is a natural response of the body to injury or infection. During this process, various inflammatory bioindicators play an important role in signaling the immune system to react against harmful pathogens and promote healing of the affected area. Inflammatory dis­eases can damage the respiratory system, gastrointestinal tract, joints, nervous system, skin, and cardiovascular sys­tem. Management of inflammatory disorders typically involves the usage of conventional anti-inflammatory ther­apy through engaging steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. However, it is reported that the usage of steroidal anti­inflammatory drugs leads to disruptions of the basic vital metabolism of the body and increases the risk of heart dis­ease [137]. To delimit the usage of these synthetic drugs, rapid exploration of traditional medicinal plants with potential anti-inflammatory properties can help to modu­late the immune response and reduce inflammatory processes.
Hyoscine and berberine are the natural anti-inflammatory compounds isolated from Datura stramonium and Berberis vulgaris, respectively, commercialized patented alkaloids available in the market [138]. Many medicinal plants contain bioactive compounds that retard the secretion or activity of mediators responsible for pro-inflammatory functions, like cytokines, chemokines, and prostaglandins. Incorporating these plants into the diet or using them as herbal remedies may offer natural and effective strategies for managing inflammatory conditions and promoting overall health and well-being.
The anti-inflammatory potential of P. granatum is pri­marily attributed to the presence of some active chemical constituents like ellagic acid, anthocyanins, and punica­lagin, in conjunction with fatty acids that are found to be present in their seeds. This natural product serves as a potential anti-inflammatory agent. The phenolic compo­nents act as potent antioxidants, effectively reducing inflammation within biological systems. Furthermore, the inclusion of fatty acids in the seeds of P. granatum further enhances its anti-inflammatory properties. Recognizing the effectiveness of P. granatum, and incorporating it into one’s diet may serve as an effective method of promoting overall health and reducing inflammation [139].
3.5 Conclusion
Despite the demonstrated efficacy of conventional synthetic drugs for common ailments, the deleterious effects they pose to human health have been a source of concern. As a
result, there has been a shift in focus toward exploring medicinal plants as an alternative to commercially available synthetic drugs. Plants are found to exhibit a lower toxicity profile, thereby offering a safer and more sustainable solu­tion to the challenges posed by conventional synthetic drugs. Therefore, the utilization of ethnomedicinal plants presents a promising avenue for the growth of harmless and more efficient therapeutic interventions. Ethnomedicinal reports offer invaluable insights into traditional knowledge systems, providing a rich inevitable repository of informa­tion on the traditional medicinal properties of natural rem­edies. Across various cultures and regions, indigenous communities have long relied on traditional practices to combat a spectrum of diseases, ranging from viral infec­tions to chronic conditions like cancer and diabetes. Ethnomedicinal knowledge underscores the diverse array of plant-based remedies used by different cultures to address these health concerns. By combining this traditional wis­dom with modern scientific methods, researchers can unlock the full therapeutic potential of medicinal plants, paving the way for novel treatments and holistic healthcare approaches. Furthermore, efforts to conserve traditional knowledge and medicinal plant biodiversity are essential for preserving these invaluable resources for future generations.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Science for Equity, Empowerment, and Development (DST-SEED), Govt. of India, New Delhi (Grant No. DST/SEED/ TSP/STI/2020/333) for financial support.

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