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5.5 Good Collection Practices for Medicinal Plants 91
Table 5.3 Examples of plant parts and harvesting timing.
Sr. No Plant part Time of collection Examples
1 Seed After maturity, washed and freed from pulp Nux Vomica, Cocoa.
2 Fruit Ripe, half ripe or fully mature Coriander, Dill, Bael.
3 Resin Immediately after oozing from plant, in dry weather Balsam of Peru, Balsum of Tolu.
4 Gum After oozing, when it dries or hardens, in dry weather Acacia, Tragacanth
5 Latex After oozing out, after coagulation Papaya, Opium.
6 Heartwood After maturation Sandal wood.
7 Pod After maturation Senna
During the harvest phase, meticulous attention must be
devoted to preventing the incorporation of foreign organic
and inorganic matter, weeds, or poisonous plants into the
harvested medicinal herbs. The harvesting of medicinal
plants should be executed in optimal conditions, with a
deliberate avoidance of dew, rainfall, or excessively high
dampness. Maintenance of cutting devices, harvesters, and
other machinery necessitates keeping them in a clean and
uncontaminated condition. These tools should be stored in
a dry facility that is devoid of insects, rodents, birds, and
other pests. Additionally, the storage area should be
inaccessible to livestock and domestic animals. Direct
interaction between harvested plants and soil should be
averted to prevent contamination.
When harvesting medicinal plants that utilize under
ground parts like roots, it is essential to promptly remove
any adhering soil from the plant materials. During transportation to the processing unit, it is crucial to expedite the
process using clean containers and ensuring dry conditions. Special attention should be given to preventing
physical damage or compaction of the raw materials of
medicinal herbs. Such issues may arise, for example, due
to excessive filling or the stacking of sacks or bags, poten
tially leading to composting or a reduction in quality.
Identifying and discarding decaying medicinal herbal
materials during harvest, post-harvest scrutiny, and processing is imperative to mitigate the consequence of
microbial contamination and the subsequent deterioration of product property.
5.5 Good Collection Practices for Medicinal Plants
This segment outlines comprehensive approaches and fundamental processes for the small- and large-scale gathering
of fresh medicinal herbs. The primary emphasis is on
methodologies designed to ensure the prolonged viability
of natural populations and their associated ecosystems.
Plans for the management of collection must explain sustainable harvesting thresholds and specify suitable methods tailored to each medicinal plant species and the specific
plant component under consideration, whether it be roots,
leaves, fruits, and so forth [8].
5.5.1 Collection Permissions
In certain nations, it is essential to secure collection permits and other official documentation from governmental
bodies and landowners before gathering plants from their
natural habitats. It is advisable to refer to and comply with
national legislation, including the examination and adher
ence to national “red” listed plants. In order to export
medicinal plant materials from the nation of origin, it is
imperative to obtain several essential documents. These
include export permits, phytosanitary certificates, permits
from the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) for both export
and import, re-export certificates for CITES, and any addi
tional permits mandated by the relevant authorities.
5.5.2 Technical Planning
-
Prior to commencing the collection process, it is essential to
assess the geographic dissemination and population intensity of the targeted medicinal plant species. Consideration
should include the closeness of the field from the home base
and the quality of available target plants. Crucial details
about the targeted species, including taxonomy, distribution,
phenology, genetic diversity, reproductive biology, and eth
nobotany, must be collected. Additionally, data pertaining to
the topography, geology, soils, climate, vegetation, and other
environmental conditions of potential collection sites should
be compiled and incorporated into the collection plan.
Botanical notes and other taxonomic recognition aids prove
valuable at collection sites, especially when encountering
related or unrelated species with similar morphological
appearances. It is also beneficial to have photograph copies
-
-
-
92 5 Cultivation, Collection, and Preparation of Plant Drugs
and other images of the targeted medicinal herb sourced
from standard books and herbarium, as well as ethnographic
information such as common or local names of the target
species and plant parts. These resources are particularly useful in the field, specifically for inexperienced workers.
Furthermore, comprehensive training is essential for collection teams to ensure proficiency in appropriate collection
techniques. These teams hold the responsibility of conserving and managing the desired medicinal plant species in
their natural habitat.
5.5.3 Social and Ecological Impact
Examining the impact of field collection on local communities is essential, and there is a continuous need for monitoring the ecological consequences. Ensuring the resilience
of the natural habitat and maintaining viable populations
of the targeted species within the collection region remains
of utmost significance. This critical analysis delves into the
repercussions of field collection, emphasizing the ongoing
importance of ecological monitoring and the preservation
of the natural habitat to sustain the populations of the species being targeted.
To ensure the best results, various methods are employed
to process each individual herb. The processing of plantbased ingredients involves multiple stages that the raw
drug undergoes after harvest. These stages can be categorized into primary processing and secondary processing
and can be further classified as mentioned below [9, 10]:
Primary processing: it is simple processing used for sort-
ing of herbal drugs using the following process:
1. Garbling
2. Washing
3. Parboiling
4. Leaching
5. Drying
Secondary processing: this process includes refining and
purifying plant materials. It enhances the value of the raw
plant material and ensures that the final product meets
quality, safety, and effectiveness standards.
1. Cutting/sectioning
2. Aging/sweating
3. Baking/roasting
4. Boiling/steaming
5. Stir frying etc.
5.5.4 Selection of Medicinal Plants for Collection
While selecting the specific plant species or botanical varieties for collection, it is advisable to adhere to the guidelines outlined in the national pharmacopoeia or those
recommended by reputable national authorities within
the user’s country. In the case of newly introduced medicinal plants, it is essential to identify and document the chosen species or botanical variety by referencing the source
material used or described in traditional medicine from
their native regions. For individuals engaged in collecting
or producing medicinal plant materials and herbal medicines, it is strongly recommended to create botanical specimens and submit them to regional or national herbaria
for authentication. It is suggested to retain voucher specimens for a suitable duration under appropriate conditions
and record the taxonomist name or other authorities who
provided the botanical authentication. In case the medicinal plant is unfamiliar to the community, document and
maintain records of its botanical identity.
5.6 Processing of Medicinal Plants
The complete transformation of raw materials, starting
from their initial state in the field and culminating in the
final product, constitutes the processing of medicinal
plants. This complex process comprises a series of steps
that vary depending on the unique properties of each herb.
5.6.1 Primary Processing
Garbling: It is crucial for maintaining quality standards in
the herbal industry. It involves the systematic sorting and
selection of dried plant material to eliminate impurities,
foreign matter, or undesired plant parts, ensuring the
purity and quality of the final product. The process includes
removing extraneous materials like twigs, stones, or contaminants to meet regulatory requirements and consumer
expectations. Garbling employs procedures such as visual
inspection, sieving, and sometimes mechanical equipment
to achieve standardized and pure herbal material [11].
Washing: It is the essential step following garbling, helping to clean the raw material and remove any remnants of
soil, dirt, and additional impurities present on the surface.
Parboiling: The parboiling process, consisting of immersing certain herbal raw materials in boiling water, brings
about several advantages. This procedure serves a dual
function, ensuring the preservation of the raw material by
preventing insect infestation and fungal contamination, as
well as playing a vital role in subsequent processing by aiding in the elimination of persistent impurities and outer
coatings from the raw materials. Through this dual-function process, the overall cleanliness and readiness of the
material for subsequent stages in the processing chain are
enhanced.
Leaching: Leaching is a process where some impurities
are eliminated by exposing the plant material to flowing
water. Nevertheless, it is crucial to regulate the leaching
5.7 Storage and Packaging 93
duration to avoid the depletion of the chemical constituents inherent in the medicinal plant. This step is crucial in
ensuring that impurities are effectively removed while preserving the valuable components of the plant material.
Drying: The drying of plant material is an essential stage
in the preparation of herbal products. After the raw plant
material has been harvested, cleaned, and possibly subjected to additional initial processing stages, it is essential
to remove excess moisture to improve its stability and
prevent microbial growth. Air-drying, sun-drying, ovendrying, and freeze-drying are among the most common
techniques for dehydrating plant materials. The selection
of a drying method is frequently influenced by variables
such as the type of plant material, the local climate, and the
intended qualities of the final product.
Proper drying is required to prevent the decomposition
of active constituents and preserve the botanical material’s
overall quality. During the dehydrating process, excessive
heat must be avoided to prevent the loss of volatile compounds and other bioactive components. Additionally, drying time is a crucial factor to consider. It must be long
enough to accomplish the desired moisture content for
storage and subsequent processing, but not so long as to
compromise the therapeutic properties of the plant.
5.6.2 Secondary Processing
Secondary processing varies among different herbs, contingent upon the specific nature of active ingredients and
therapeutic properties inherent in each. This stage encompasses various techniques, including the elimination of
foreign materials, microbial infestation prevention, augmentation of drug effectiveness, mitigation of toxicity, and
extraction utilizing appropriate solvents. Additionally, it
encompasses procedures, such as concentrate formation
and the drying of extracts.
5.6.2.1 Cutting/sectioning
After drying, herbal materials are chopped and sectioned
for storage and extraction. The preparation of either a
coarse or fine powder is determined by the specific portion
of the plant and the extraction techniques applied.
5.6.2.2 Aging/sweating
The aging process involves preserving raw materials after
harvesting for a predetermined duration, typically up to a
year, either in the sun or in the shade. During this period,
excessive water evaporates, and enzymatic reactions might
transpire, inducing alterations in the chemical composition of the herbal material. To illustrate, cascara bark
requires aging for a minimum of one year before incorporation into therapeutic formulations to alleviate its potential irritant effects.
The process of sweating involves exposing herbal materials to elevated temperatures ranging from 45 to 65°C, coupled with high moisture, for a duration spanning from a
week to several months. In this phase, plant materials are
thoughtfully layered between blankets (woolen or alternative types of fabric). The aging process is recognized as a
hydrolytic and oxidative mechanism, wherein certain
chemical constituents within the herbs undergo hydrolysis
or oxidation. For instance, vanilla beans undergo a sweating
process, confined between woolen blankets, lasting approximately two months. Throughout this period, the beans
experience a weight loss of up to 80%, concurrently acquiring a distinctive and desirable color and aroma.
5.6.2.3 Baking/roasting
It involves subjecting herbal material to a heating process
in ovens, with the temperature and duration of baking or
roasting varying according to the specific herbal material.
This is continued until the drug attains a distinct coloration; for instance, nutmeg and tobacco leaves are roasted
until they achieve a yellowish-brown hue.
5.6.2.4 Boiling/steaming
In the boiling procedure, the medicinal substance undergoes immersion in a liquid solvent like water, vinegar,
wine, milk, or even animal urine. As an example, the rhizome of Acorus calamus is boiled in cow’s urine to enhance
its anticonvulsant properties.
The steaming method involves subjecting herbal components to steam through a steamer, resulting in the creation
of a moist texture. As an example, Polygonum multiflorum
roots undergo steaming in the presence of a decoction
made from black beans to enhance their tonic effects.
5.6.2.5 Stir-frying
During this method, plant materials are kept in a vessel
or frying pan and heated. They are then stirred or tossed
over and over for a certain amount of time, until the outside color changes, which can range from charring to
carbonization. The medicine may be mixed with things
like sand, talc, or clay to make sure it heats evenly. For
example, honey can be added to the stir-frying of liquorice stems and rhizomes.
5.7 Storage and Packaging
Proper storage facilities for medicinal materials necessitate
well-ventilated, dry environments shielded from light.
When deemed necessary, these facilities should be
equipped with air-conditioning and humidity control systems, along with measures to safeguard against rodents
and insects. The flooring should be neat, devoid of cracks,
94 5 Cultivation, Collection, and Preparation of Plant Drugs
and easy to maintain cleanliness. Storage on shelves is
recommended, ensuring an adequate distance between
the medicinal materials and the walls, while proactive
measures should be implemented to prevent potential
pest infestations.
It is advisable to store dried medicinal crude drugs, herbs,
and volatile oils in a facility that is both dry and wellventilated. This ensures stability by minimizing daily
temperature fluctuations and facilitating proper aeration.
On the other hand, fresh medicinal herbs should be stored
at optimal low temperatures, preferably between 2–8°C,
whereas frozen products require storage at temperatures
lower than –20°C.
Medicinal plant materials that have undergone processing
must be appropriately packaged using clean, dry containers,
such as boxes, sacks, or bags. This should be done in
accordance with established standard operating procedures
and must comply with the regulations set forth by both the
producing entity and the relevant national or regional
authorities in the end-user countries.
Packaging materials must adhere to stringent criteria to
ensure the integrity of medicinal plant materials. They
should be non-polluting, clean, dry, and free from any
damage, meeting the specified quality standards for
the respective medicinal plants. For delicate medicinal
plant materials, it is recommended to utilize rigid containers
5.8 Sample Record for Cultivated Medicinal Plants
Sample records for cultivated medicinal plants are crucial
for understanding their chemical composition, biological
activities, and potential therapeutic uses. These records,
gathered from sources like scientific literature, databases,
and experimental studies, should include details such as
the presence of essential oils, terpenoids, flavonoids, and
other secondary metabolites. Techniques like GC-MS,
HPLC, and NMR spectroscopy help analyze this chemical
composition. Additionally, these records should document the plant’s biological activities, like antioxidant,
antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing
properties, which can be assessed through both lab experiments and traditional knowledge. It’s also important to
consider geographical variations, influenced by factors
like temperature and humidity, which affect the plant’s
composition and activities. Quality control measures,
including species identification, sample collection, storage, and analysis, ensure accuracy. Ultimately, these
records help uncover the potential medicinal uses of
plants, aiding in drug development and therapeutic agent
discovery [8].
Identification of cultivated medicinal plants follows
WHO GACP guidelines [8], ensuring accurate species recognition and adherence to quality standards for cultivation. Compliance with GACP guidelines ensures the
integrity and efficacy of cultivated medicinal plants for
therapeutic use. This process involves rigorous botanical
verification, including morphological and genetic identification, to guarantee plant authenticity and potency. GACP
guidelines also emphasize proper documentation of plant
sources, growth conditions, and harvesting techniques to
maintain consistency and traceability in medicinal plant
cultivation, as given below and in Table 5.4.
Additional remarks and suggestions: If necessary, document supplementary information or specific observations
on a separate sheet of paper.
Table 5.4 An overview of the growing conditions for plants. Year __________
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Sunlight duration (in hours)
Daytime average
temperature (oC)
Average temperature at
o
night (
C)
Normal rain (mm)
Plant growth (cm.)
Plant thickness (cm)
Condition of flower buds
Calyx structure
Pest destruction
Type of disease
Herbicide used
5.8 Sample Record for Cultivated Medicinal Plants 95
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Pesticide used
Branching density
Digging
Type of irrigation
Temperature
Speed of air
Drought
Plant part yield per plant
Record of cultivated medicinal herbs
Botanical name (identification up to species): ____________________________________
Regional name: _____________________________________________________________
English/ Commercial name (if available) _________________________________________
Part of plant to be collection: ________________________________________________
Harvest code no. (if any): ____________________________________________________
Record of geographical site utilized for cultivation of medicinal herbs
Location of cultivation site: _______________________________________________
Zone/State/Nation: ______________________________________________________
Record of grower
Growers Name: ___________________________________________________________
Communication details: _______________________________________________________
Propagation date: _________________________________________
Harvesting date: ___________________________________________
Record of propagation materials
Source of propagating material: _________________________________________________
Description of the of propagating material: ________________________________________
Available in mercantile market (circle): yes / no
If available, Breed name: ______________________ Traders name: ___________________
Record of cultivation
Method of propagation materials establishment (circle): direct seed sowing / transplants
First propagation date: _____________________________ Percentage success:__________________________________
Re-propagation date:_______________________________ Percentage success:__________________________________
Distance between rows (cm):________________________ Distance between plants (cm):_________________________
Size of planted area (m2):___________________________ Number of plants per unit area:________________________
96 5 Cultivation, Collection, and Preparation of Plant Drugs
Crop rotation followed:
Soil type: Percent clay _________________ Percent sand _________________ Percent silt _________________
Percent organic staple ____________________________ % Others (if any) __________________________
Soil pH__________________________________________ Soil fertility:good / poor
Retention of moisture in soil: good / poor______________ Effluence of Soil: good / poor
Artificial irrigation facility: yes / no___________________ Land (circle): plain / inclined
Irrigation type: Inudate / channel / sprinkler / drip
Water source: Tap water/pond/ river/ well / any other, Specify: _______
Water quality: Good / bad
Explanation:
Salinity of water (circle): Low / high
Name of neighboring plants:
Insects on adjoining plants (if any): Aphids/caterpillars/locust/other if any, specify:_____
Agrochemicals
Fertilizer applied before propagation: Farmyard manure / chemical
Name:_________________________________________ Technique
Time/date (dd/mm/yyyy):_________________________ Quantity used
Herbicides applied before propagation:
Name:_________________________________________ Technique
Time/date (dd/mm/yyyy):_________________________ Quantity used
Herbicides used after propagation
Name:_________________________________________ Technique
Time/date (dd/mm/yyyy): _________________________ Quantity used
Pesticides used:
Name:_________________________________________ Technique
Time/date (d/m/y):______________________________ Quantity used
Harvest/Collection
Collection date: _________________________________ Time of day:
Plant and environmental conditions:________________ Technique:
Crop yield:
Atypical events that could impact quality
(Adverse climatic conditions, encounters with toxic substances, infestations of pests, etc.):
5.9 Voluntary Certification Scheme for Medicinal Plant Produce in Indian Scenario 97
5.9 Voluntary Certification Scheme for Medicinal Plant Produce in Indian Scenario
The Voluntary Certification Scheme for Medicinal Plant
Produce (VCSMPP) is a certificate that ensures fairness for
evaluation and certification of medicinal herbs. The objective of this practice is to ensure that individuals engaged in
cultivating plants on agricultural lands or harvesting them
from natural habitats adhere to specific regulations and
maintain a consistent approach. The certification process
defines the requisite documentation necessary for the issuance of certificates related to medicinal plants. The
National Medicinal Plant Board (NMPB), in collaboration
with the Quality Council of India (QCI), issues a certificate
based on two sets of good practices: GAP for plants grown
on farms and Good Field Collection Practices (GFCP) for
those collected from the wild, even if they go through a
middleman like a trader. The scheme would benefit everyone involved in the production and use of herbs, including
cultivators, traders, users, and consumers. It would ensure
a supply of high-quality raw materials for the AYUSH
industry, which would lead to better-quality herbal products for consumers. There are four different ways that people who grow, collect, or trade medicinal plants can get
certified.
a) A producer or collector requests for certification on an
individual basis and receives it for their produce.
b) A producer/collector collective asks for certification as
a group, and the group is granted certification as a
legal entity.
c) The individual farmer might choose the lot-wise certi-
fication model based on GAP, in which case he or she
obtains a certificate of compliance for a quantity of
produce that is submitted for inspection to an authorized certifying authority.
d) A middleman, such as a trader, requests certification
of the certified medicinal plant production to be used
as a supply in the market or as a manufacturer or processor of AYUSH products.
5.9.1 Certification Process: For individual farmer/collector
The prospective applicant shall apply to the Certification
Bodies (CBs) on the application form prescribed and provide the minimum information on:
a. The name and address of the applicant along with con-
tact details
b. Proof of legal entity
c. Location and total land held at location
d. Whether land is held under ownership or lease
e. Produce being handled
f. Relevant certification criteria GAP/GFCP under which
certification is sought
g. Produce a handling area
h. Number and competence of manpower
i. Annual area under cultivation/collection
j. Covered medicinal produces area-wise within the
annual area
k. Since when the area is under the medicinal plants
l. Any registration with government department (like
State Medicinal Plant Board, etc.)
• CBs will analyze the application to ensure it is
adequate, and any flaws found will be notified to
the applicant within the allotted period after the
application is received.
• For both internal and external evaluation, control
criteria and a compliance checklist based on the
relevant standards shall be employed. Preassessment is optional but is recommended.
• Within three months of registering an application, an
initial assessment of the applicant’s products and
processes at their site must be carried out; harvest
time is the best time to do this evaluation.
• A representative produce shall be taken for testing in a
separate laboratory for testing against contaminants
(heavy metals, aflatoxins, and pesticide residues) and
TLC profiling for species if needed. The maximum
allowed limits are given in Table 5.5.
• All three of the GAP/GFCP standard’s compliance
criteria – critical, major, and minor – must be met by a
grower. The requirements for plants included in the
Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (API),
Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of India (HPI), Unani
Pharmacopoeia of India (UPI), and other pertinent
standard official texts are in addition to these needs.
▪
The following criteria will be used to determine the
compliance level:
a. Critical – All applicable critical control points
must be completely in compliance.
b. Major – All major control points must be observed to
be in 90% compliance.
c. Minor – All relevant minor control points must be
at least 75% compliant.
d. The product should be in compliance with major
contaminants.
e. TLC profile analysis, if required.
f. If necessary, testing in accordance with API/HPI,
etc.
98 5 Cultivation, Collection, and Preparation of Plant Drugs
Table 5.5 Permissible Levels of Contaminants Under GAP And GFCP.
Heavy metals
Sr. No Parameters Permissible limits
1 Lead (Pb) 10 ppm
2 Cadmium (Cd) 0.3 ppm
3 Arsenic (As) 3 ppm
4 Mercury (Hg) 1 ppm
Aflatoxins
5 B1 0.5 ppm
6 G1 0.5 ppm
7 B2 0.1 ppm
8 G2 0.1 ppm
Microbial contamination
10 Salmonella sp./g Absent
11 Pseudomonas aeruginosa/g Absent
12 E. coli/g Absent
13 Total microbial plate count (TPC) 10
5
14 Total yeast and moulds 103/g
/g
Pesticide Residue
Substance Limit (mg/kg)
Alachlor 0.02
Aldrin and Dieldrin (sum of) 0.05
Azinphos-methyl 1.0
Bromopropylate 3.0
Chlordane (sum of cis-, trans - and Oxythlordane) 0.05
Chlorfenvinphos 0.5
Chlorpyrifos 0.2
Chlorpyrifos-methyl 0.1
Cypermethrin (and isomers) 1.0
DDT (sum of p, p-’DDT, o, p-’DDT, p, p-’DDE and p,p-’TDE 1.0
Deltamethrin 0.5
Dichlorvos 1.0
Dithiocarbamates (as CS2) 2.0
Endosulfan (sum of isomers and Endosulfan sulphate) 3.0
Endrin 0.05
Ethion 2.0
Fenitrothion 0.5
Fenvalerate 1.5
Fonofos 0.05
Heptachlor (sum of Heptachlor and Heptachlorepoxide) 0.05
Hexachlorobenzene 0.1
Hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (other than γ) 0.3
Lindane (γ-Hexachlorocyclohexane) 0.6
Malathion 1.0
Methidathion 0.2
Parathion 0.5
Parathion-methyl 0.2
Permethrin 1.0
Phosalone 0.1
Piperonyl butoxide 3.0
Pirimiphos-methyl 4.0
Pyrethrins (sum of) 3.0
Quintozene (sum of quintozene, pentachloroaniline and methyl
pentachlorophenyl sulphide)
1.0
References 99
• Upon compliance of all standards and satisfactory
resolution of critical control points, which are categorized as critical, major, and minor, CBs shall grant
certificates.
• The certified sites will have their surveillance evalu-
ated at least once a year, with a maximum of one year
between inspections. The raw material samples of
approved traders must be purchased from the marketplace or obtained from buyers. They then need to be
examined in independent labs to make sure they meet
the certification criteria. Fifty percent samples should
be from market (Website: https://nabcb.qci.org.in/
pcb/). [12]
In order to apply for group certification, it is necessary to
have a producer/collector group, which must be a legally
recognized business. Individual farmers can choose the lotwise certification model based on GAP, wherein they obtain
a certificate of conformity for the produce lot they submit to
the approved certification body for inspection. In an alternative approach, an intermediary entity, like a trader, has the
option to seek certification for the approved medicinal plant
yield. This certification is sought for the proper storage of the
produce, either for market distribution or for supplying to
manufacturers/processors engaged in the production of
AYUSH products. The information is available on the website of the Quality Council of India. (https://qcin.org/ckdocs/1586972217.6.%20Certification%20Process_
version%20II_Sep_2017.pdf)
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