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3
Folk Medicine as a Source of Therapeutically Important Drugs: Evidence from Ethnobotanical Investigations
Moses Sam Arul Raj1, Mohan Kalaskar2, Shailendra Gurav3, Muniappan Ayyanar
1
Department of Botany, A. V. V. M. Sri Pushpam College (Affiliated to Bharathidasan University), Tamil Nadu, India
2
Department of Pharmacognosy, R. C. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Maharashtra, India
3
Department of Pharmacognosy, Goa College of Pharmacy, Goa, India
1
3.1 Introduction
Natural products, either in their unprocessed state or
following the different extraction methods for their active
ingredients, have long been utilized by various communities and regarded as invaluable resources for the development of new drugs. The transition from conventional
ethnopharmacology to drug discovery has been facilitated
by the development of unique chemoinformatic methodologies, advances in computing power, and the evolution of
isolation and characterization procedures [1]. Since the
beginning of human civilization, plants and plant-based
medicines have been man’s primary means of healing.
They continue to be among the most effective remedies for
a wide range of illnesses [2]. The growing expenses of prescription medications for maintaining one’s own health,
along with the bioprospection of novel plant-based medications, have stimulated interest in medicinal plants [3].
The ethnobotanical survey can provide numerous hints
for the development of medications to cure human ailments, and plant-based traditional knowledge has emerged
as a valuable resource in the hunt for novel drug and nutraceutical sources [4]. The medicinal plants sector has long
played a significant role in the sociocultural, spiritual, and
medical spheres of Indian rural and tribal communities. A
multidisciplinary approach with integrated initiatives,
financial and technical backing, and a meticulously
planned strategy is necessary for research on medicinal
plants and the hunt for plant-derived pharmaceuticals [5].
Researchers are now more interested in finding new substances with potential therapeutic applications than just
figuring out the scientific basis for a plant’s use, thanks to a
resurgence of interest in old pharmacopeias. The increased
awareness of natural goods as non-narcotic, non-sideeffecting, widely accessible, reasonably priced, and sometimes the poor’s only access to healthcare is driving up
demand for medicinal plants in both developed and developing nations. Medicinal plants play a significant economic role in developing nations in addition to their
medical and cultural uses [6]. For a large portion of the
global populace, medicinal plants continue to be an affordable source of medication.
3.1.1 Market Potential of Herbal Medicines
The natural products and related pharmaceuticals that
make up around 35% of the yearly global medical market
primarily come from plants (25%), microbes (13%), and animal sources (3%) [7]. Approximately 39% of the 520 drugs
that the The United States Food and Drug Administration
(USFDA) approved between 1983 and 1994 were derived
from natural products, compared to 60–80% in the case of
antibiotics and anticancer agents. Of the 1562 medications
that the USFDA approved between 1981 and 2014, 64 were
herbal formulations, 320 were derived from natural
resources, and 61 were synthetic medications [8]. The drugs
such as amoxicillin, erythromycin, clarithromycin, paclitaxel, camptothecin, atorvastatin, lovastatin, cyclosporin A,
and captopril are some notable top-selling natural productderived pharmaceuticals available worldwide.
An essential component of traditional pharmacological
systems is medicinal herbs. According to the World Health
Organization (WHO), 65–80% of people on Earth live in
underdeveloped nations where access to modern medicine
44 3 Folk Medicine as a Source of Therapeutically Important Drugs: Evidence from Ethnobotanical Investigations
is limited and poverty forces them to rely mostly on plants
for primary healthcare needs [9]. People still receive their
main healthcare from regional traditional healing systems
in the majority of rural areas. The least expensive and safest medical practice is traditional medicine (TM), which is
used worldwide, but primarily in developing nations [10].
There is no accurate estimate for the entire number of
medicinal plants on Earth, although reports of 4.22 million
flowering plants and over 50 000 are utilized for therapeutic purposes globally. Through the retrospective appraisal
of diverse historical uses, such as food, timber, religious
objectives, medical, and fiber applications, this scientific
discipline offers a possibility for the restoration of cultural
identities, from tiny human communities to big civilizations [1]. The benefits of therapeutically important plants
to human well-being are practically limitless. China and
India are the top two nations where over 40% of the market’s medicinal plant species are used.
Medicinal plants are still a valuable therapeutic resource
for treating human illnesses. The earliest plant medications were typically made from basic botanicals that were
used in a crude form. Numerous hints are revealed by ethnobotanical surveys that could lead to the creation of medications to cure human ailments. It is impossible to overstate
the value of ethnobotanical research as an affordable
method of discovering novel plant chemicals [9]. The past
50 years have seen an erratic interest in ethnomedical
study. Plant-based medicinal ingredients are widely used in
Western medicine. Many pharmaceuticals that are now
widely utilized in contemporary medicine were first
attempted in folk practices. In many developing countries,
herbal medicines are thought to play a significant role in
the basic healthcare of individuals and communities.
Historians all over the world have evidenced that, at least,
all prehistoric cultures employed plants often and in
sophisticated ways. So, before the traditional cultures are
entirely lost, all ethnobiological information from the various ethnic populations must be inventoried and recorded.
3.1.2 Early Records of Folk Medicine
The use of plant resources to heal human diseases has a
long history. Several plant species, including Commiphora
myrrh, Glycyrrhiza glabra, and Papaver somniferum, were
recorded on Mesopotamian clay tablets as early as 2600 BC
and these plants are still used today to treat a variety of illnesses [7]. A few written accounts of the applications of
natural products, particularly plant-based medicines, may
be found in the Chinese Materia Medica (1100 BC),
Shennong Herbal (~100 BC), and Tang Herbal (659 AD).
Dioscorides (about 100 AD) and Theophrastus (300 BC)
studied and documented about the folk uses of medicinal
plants while the Arabs expanded the folk uses of GrecoRoman knowledge using Chinese and Indian herbals that
were unknown to the Greco-Roman world [3].
With the first record dated approximately 1100 BC, the
Chinese Materia Medica has been well documented.
Similarly, the Indian Ayurvedic system has been well documented since about 1000 BC; the Gyu-zhi (Four Tantras),
the main text of Tibetan medicine, was translated from
Sanskrit into Tibetan during 800 AD. The Greeks made a
significant contribution to the rational development of the
use of folk practices in ancient Western civilization [8] In
most of the Asian countries, TM is widely practiced. The
application of TM has garnered increased interest and
attention worldwide throughout the last 10 years. In China,
around 40% of healthcare services are provided through
TM. About 40% of people in Colombia and 71% of people in
Chile have used this type of medication.
3.1.3 Origin and Definition of Ethnobotany
Ethnobotany is one of the oldest fields of human inquiries.
Its foundations are found in the countless observations
made by botanists, anthropologists, missionaries, explorers, traders, and naturalists regarding the uses of plants
[11] Ethnobotany’s history has paralleled the development
of both systematic and commercial botany, and it has
always been closely associated with botanical discoveries.
“Ethnomedicine” refers to the traditional medical care provided by indigenous people to humans and is considered
the origin of all other traditional medical systems.
The study of how plants are used by Aboriginal people is
known as “Aboriginal botany,” according to Powers (1873–
1874). The term “ethnobotany” was first used in Philadelphia
in the Evening Telegraph by Harshberger in 1895, but he did
not provide a definition. “Study and evaluation of the
knowledge of all phases of plant life amongst primitive societies and the effect of vegetal environment upon life” is how
[12] defined ethnobotany. It is the “study of interrelations of
the primitive man and plants” and “study of relationships
between man and his ambient vegetation, by other researchers [13].
Richard Schultes, who lived among the Amazonian
Indians in the 1940s, is credited as being the founder of modern ethnobotany, the study of how local societies use plants.
The term “ethnobotany” was limited by Castetter (1944) [14]
to the rudimentary stages of human civilization. He asserts
that “economic botany ignores the fundamental cultural
3.1 Introduction 45
aspects of plant utilization, whereas ethnobotany is sharply
differentiated from economic botany in this regard.”
Even though Harsh Berger first coined the word ethnobotany in 1895, tribal people and aborigines have long
employed this knowledge in their daily lives. The “totality
of the place of plants in a culture” is the focus of contemporary ethnobotany [15]. “Ethnobotany is a part of ethnoecology which concerns plants,” claims Martin [16]. From
an interdisciplinary perspective, ethnobotany is defined as
“the study of human evaluation and manipulation of plant
materials, substances, phenomena, including relevant concepts in primitive unlettered societies” by Schultes and
Reis [17]. Therefore, ethnobotany should not be viewed as
a subfield of economic botany but rather as a topic of study
in and of itself.
Generation after generation has passed down customs
for gathering, preparing, and using plants and plant-based
medications [18]. The value of folk medicines as sources of
knowledge about conventionally used therapeutic herbs is
growing. The world regards with great respect the knowledge of medicinal characteristics in plants that ethnic cultures have amassed over centuries of trial and error.
However, according to [4]., this traditional knowledge has
remained exclusive to a small group of indigenous people
and is only verbally transmitted from one generation to the
next.
3.1.4 History of Ethnobotany
The term ethnobotany best describes the experience of the
first humans, who studied a variety of plants, tested, and utilized plant parts to see whether they might satiate hunger or
treat various illnesses. A very long history of ethnobotany is
suggested by archeological or paleobotanical evidence about
the collecting, usage, and cultivation of plants for herbal
treatments in ancient scriptures. Global ethnobotanical
research now concentrates on the applications of plants for
human use rather than the connection as a whole.
The world’s traditional societies are currently seeing a
drastic shift in lifestyle as a result of the advancements of
contemporary society. They are renunciating their longstanding traditions, including those related to food, medicine, and other practices. In the absence of adequate
procedures to record and document this priceless knowledge, it will vanish forever and be unknown to future generations. These days, one of humanity’s most pressing
challenges is the preservation of such knowledge systems.
Traditional communities, which comprise village people
and tribal members, are the source of accumulated expertise and information about native plants and animals.
Living next to nature and through trial and error, they have
weeded out and gained a solid understanding of what
resources are available to them locally. In most cases, this
interaction benefits both humans and plants, but occasionally it may be detrimental to one group exclusively [19].
Many people, particularly in developing nations,
depend on plants for a variety of needs, including food,
fuel, fodder, medicine, building materials, and building
construction. People and plants have interacted for a long
time, and this has led to a wealth of information about
plant resources. Native Americans and other ethnic
groups have extensive knowledge of plants and their therapeutic uses. Trial and error were used to gain this knowledge of the qualities and applications of medicinal plants,
which was then passed down from generation to generation [20]. Ethnobotany has developed over the past century into a specialized field that reveals the link between
humans and plants in different fields, including ecology,
economic botany, pharmacology, public health, and other
fields as needed.
The emergence of high-throughput screening coupled
with the loss of traditional knowledge has rendered ethnobotanical procedures time-consuming and possibly superfluous. Nonetheless, historical herbal books offer an
antecedent source that records the customary applications
of different species as medicinal agents. These herbal texts
gain value as traditional knowledge is lost via generational
losses. The process of obtaining valuable information from
various sources has been laborious and time-consuming.
The majority of ethnobotanical research has been limited
to studying tribal populations in order to document their
plant knowledge and usage, as well as to look for new
sources of edible plants, herbal remedies, and other plant
qualities that are valuable to humans [21].
3.1.5 Subdisciplines of Ethnobotany
The field of ethnobotany is also known by various names,
including botanical anthropology, phytoanthropology,
anthropological botany, aboriginal botany, and anthropobotany (Table 3.1). Although the data source may not
change significantly, each subdiscipline will have different
study methodologies. An extremely diverse approach to
drug development is ethnopharmacology, which involves
observation, description, and investigational study of
locally produced medicines. It is found in the discoveries of
natural materials with biological action made possible by
the fields of botany, chemistry, biochemistry, pharmacology, and many others, including anthropology, archeology,
history, and linguistics [13].
46 3 Folk Medicine as a Source of Therapeutically Important Drugs: Evidence from Ethnobotanical Investigations
Table 3.1 Subdisciplines of ethnobotany.
Subdisciplines Descriptions
Anthropology The academic discipline that examines human beings in their entirety, encompassing their
Ethnobotany The study of the relationship between plants and humans.
Ethnoarchaeobotany The branch of archeology that involves study of the relationships between past ethnic human
Ethnoecology It is the study of how different ethnic communities understand and interact with their
Ethnogastrology Study of cultural practices and beliefs of food and eating habits within different societies.
Ethnohorticulture It is the study of how different ethnic communities cultivate, manage, and use plants for various
Ethnomedicobotany The interdisciplinary study examines the relationships between plants, people, and their health
Ethnomusicology The study about the role of music in human societies examines how music is created, performed,
Ethnopharmacology A scientific discipline that investigates traditional medicinal practices of various ethnic
Ethnopharmacognosy The investigation of botanical sources, chemical compositions, pharmacological activities, and
Ethnophytotaxonomy It is the study that examines how ethnic communities organize and name plants, often revealing
Ethnopteridology The study of the cultural significance, traditional uses, or ethnobotanical aspects of ferns and
Ethnobryology It is the study of the cultural significance, traditional uses, or ethnobotanical aspects of mosses and
Ethnoalgology The study of the cultural significance, traditional uses, or ethnobotanical aspects of algae within
Ethnolichenology The branch of ethnobotany focuses on the study of lichens within different ethnic communities.
Ethnoveterinary It is the study of folk practices related to the healthcare and management of animals within
biological, cultural, social, and historical dimensions.
communities and plants.
environments.
purposes.
within different ethnic communities.
perceived, and understood within different ethnic-cultural groups and historical periods.
communities and examines the pharmacological properties of natural substances used in
traditional medicine.
cultural significance of medicinal plants and their derived compounds.
unique taxonomic systems and classification criteria that may differ from scientific botanical
classifications.
related plants within various ethnic communities.
other bryophytes within various ethnic communities.
various ethnic communities.
different ethnic communities.
3.2 Traditional Medical Systems
A thorough analysis of the findings of studies on various
plant species and their therapeutic principles has given TM
a global boost. Before the traditional cultures are entirely
lost, all ethnobiological information from the various ethnic
populations must be inventoried and recorded. American,
Australian, European, Classical Arabic, Chinese, Indian,
African, and North African TM are among the many traditional medicinal systems that are practiced globally [120].
3.2.1 African Traditional Medicine
Of all the medical systems, African TM is considered as the
oldest and arguably the most varied. The many kinds of traditional African medicine are holistic, treating the body and the
psyche. Before recommending medications to address the
symptoms, the healer usually makes a diagnosis and treats the
psychological causes of the condition. Agathosma betulina
(Rutaceae), Harpagophytum procumbens (Pedaliaceae),
Boswellia sacra (Burseraceae), Hypoxis hemerocallidea
(Hypoxidaceae), Catha edulis (Celastraceae), Hibiscus sabdar-
iffa (Malvaceae), Senegalia senegal (Fabaceae), Commiphora
myrrha (Burseraceae), and Prunus africana (Rosaceae) are a
few significant medicinal plants found in Africa.
3.2.2 American Traditional Medicine (North, Central, and South)
Indigenous healers, or Shamans, treat illnesses in the
United States and other cultures by their addressing physical and spiritual features. Chanting, dancing, and other
3.2 Traditional Medical Systems 47
rituals are performed during these Shamanistic ceremonies with the intention of driving out evil energies to heal
the patient. Similar to Africa, the countries of Central and
South America boast a wealth of unique and rich healing
cultures that are not well-documented. In the upcoming
years, they will surely be a source of novel herbal medicines. Peumus boldus (Monimiaceae), Erythroxylum coca
(Erythroxylaceae), Paullinia cupana (Sapindaceae), Ilex
paraguariensis (Aquifoliaceae), Tabebuia impetiginosa
(Bignoniaceae), Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae), Cinchona
pubescens (Rubiaceae), Spilanthes acmella (Asteraceae),
and Uncaria tomentosa (Rubiaceae) are renowned examples of herbals they use.
3.2.3 Australian and Southeast Asian Medicine
TM has seen a rebirth in this region, and several nations
are now encouraging herbal drug research as a possible
source of novel treatments. The Australian Aboriginal
people have an intricate healing system; nevertheless, a
great deal of their traditional knowledge was lost before it
could be methodically documented. In most countries,
there is a noticeable influence of Chinese medicine in folk
practices. Melaleuca alternifolia (Myrtaceae), Strychnos
nux-vomica(Loganiaceae), Croton tiglium(Euphorbiaceae),
Piper methysticum (Piperaceae), Duboisia hopwoodii
(Solanaceae), Myristica fragrans (Myrtaceae), Styrax benzoin (Styracaceae), Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae), and
Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae) are a few of the well-
known medicinal plants in this region.
3.2.4 Ayurvedic Medicine (Indian Traditional Medicine)
Among all medical traditions, Ayurveda (the source of
organized medicine) is arguably the oldest, dating back even
further than traditional Chinese medicine. It is a comprehensive and useful collection of rules to preserve harmony
and balance inside the system. While Greek medical books
include concepts and medications with Indian origins,
ancient Hindu medical writings make no mention of foreign
medications. Ayurveda (the science of life) is a combination
of the Indian terms “Ayur” (life) and “Veda” (knowledge/
science). Ayurveda and Galenical medicine are comparable
in that they both emphasize the doshas or body humors, and
the prana, or inner life energy, which is thought to sustain
mental and digestive function. The elements of earth, water,
fire, air, and space make up the living and non-living world,
which includes humans. Different Terminalia sps.
(Combretaceae), Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae), Withania
somnifera (Solanaceae), Centella asiatica (Apiceae),
Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae), Santalum album
(Santalaceae), and Elettaria cardamomum (Zingiberaceae)
are a few of the significant Ayurvedic medicinal plants.
3.2.5 Chinese Traditional Medicine
At a time when only mildly advanced cultures were emerging in Europe, China, and India were experiencing great
prosperity. The Chinese medical system is thought to be
over 5000 years old. The Modern-day Encyclopedia of
Chinese Materia Medica, which was released in 1977, is
the most comprehensive source on Chinese herbal medication. Of the almost 6000 medications on the list, 4800
are derived from plants. The current global popularity of
herbal remedies may surely be attributed to the dissemination of traditional Chinese medicine to different continents. Famous Chinese medicinal herbs include Ephedra
sinica (Ephedraceae), Paeonia lactiflora (Paeoniaceae),
Rheum palmatum (Polygonaceae), Ephedra polymorpha
var. sinensis (Ephedraceae), Panax ginseng (Araliaceae),
and Artemisia annua (Asteraceae).
3.2.6 European Medicine
The Greeks made a substantial contribution to the development of the use of folk practices in ancient Western civilization. Hippocrates (460 to 377 BC) and Aristotle (384 to
322 BC), whose own theories were based on antiquated
beliefs from countries like India and Egypt, are credited
with creating the European medical system. During the
300 BC, Theophratus discussed the medicinal properties of
herbs and mentioned how cultivating them could alter
their properties. Local folk customs and behaviors are
greatly influenced by European tradition on a regional
level. Due to commercialization, several traditional herbal
treatments in Europe have gained widespread recognition.
3.2.7 Classical Arabic, North African Traditional Medicine
Known as the birthplace of civilization, the Middle East is
home to numerous modern-day domestic plants. Herbal
medicines were documented in cuneiform writing on countless clay tablets by the Babylonians, Assyrians, and
Sumerians. The Egyptians recorded their knowledge on
papyrus (a material derived from Cyperus aquaticus) and on
the walls of tombs from the Old Kingdom. Canon medicine is
derived from various healing cultures and serves as the foundation for the unique Islamic healing technique called
Unani-Tibb. Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae), Rosa damascena
48 3 Folk Medicine as a Source of Therapeutically Important Drugs: Evidence from Ethnobotanical Investigations
(Rosaceae), Astragalus gummifer (Fabaceae), P. somniferum
(Papaveraceae), Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae),
Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae), Carum carvi (Apiaceae),
Ferula assa-foetida (Apiaceae), Salvadora persica
(Salvadoraceae), Lawsonia inermis (Lythraceae), Prunus dulcis (Rosaceae), Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae), Senna
alexandrina (Fabaceae), Peganum harmala (Nitrariaceae),
Sesamum indicum (Pedaliaceae), Trigonella foenum-graecum
(Fabaceae), Punica granatum (Lythraceae), and Vitis vinifera
(Vitaceae) are some of the examples for the important medicinal plants of the Middle East and Egypt.
3.3 Importance of Ethnobotanical Research in Drug Discovery
The word “traditional medicine” refers to a broad range of
indigenous medical practices as well as different folk
medicinal systems of the world. There has been conflict in
the late twentieth century between more contemporary
methods of drug discovery, such as combinational chemistry, rational drug design through computer modeling, functional genomics, and proteomics, and more conventional
methods that rely on the identification of new bioactive
compounds in plants. Ethnobotanical research yielded the
majority of secondary metabolites used in contemporary
medicine [120]. Many of the pharmaceuticals that are now
widely utilized in contemporary medicine were first
employed in primitive forms in traditional or folk medicine
or for other uses that revealed possible beneficial biological
action. About 75% of existing plant-derived drugs currently
in use worldwide have been derived through ethnomedicinal data [121].
Fabricant and Farnsworth [122] revealed some novel drugs
that are derived based on ethnomedicinal information. For
example, the most common natural drugs used to treat cardiac diseases are acetyldigoxin, deslanoside, digoxin, lanatosides A, B, and C (Digitalis lanata), adoniside (Adonis dentata),
convallotoxin (Convallaria majalis), digitalin, digitoxin, gitalin (Digitalis purpurea), ouabain (Strophanthus gratus), and
scillarin A (Drimia maritima). The drugs such as aescin
(Aesculus hippocastanum) and bromelain (Ananas comosus)
are used against inflammatory diseases [122]. Colchicine
(Colchicum autumnale), etoposide, tonipoisidec (Podophyllum
peltatum), and monocrotaline (Crotalaria sessiliflora) are
some natural anti-tumorogenic drugs derived from plant
sources [122]. According to Fabricant and Farnsworth [122],
it is said that respiratory ailments can be mitigated through
drugs isolated from plants are bergenin (Ardisia japonica),
codeine, noscapine (P. somniferum), khellin (Visnaga dau-
coides), lobeline (Lobelia inflata), rorifone (Rorippa indica),
theobromine (Theobroma cacao), and theophylline (Camellia
sinensis). There are some essential neuroprotective drugs
isolated from ethnomedical plants like caffeine (Camellia sin-
ensis), strychnine (Strychnos nux-vomica), and vincamine
(Vinca minor).
A well-documented history of traditional herbal remedies
derived from a systematized collection of medicinal plants
is possessed by China and India. The ethnomedical practice
is older than the codified system approach. First, these complex codified systems formed experimental practices with
solid theoretical foundations that primarily depend on practical experiences. These are the three ways in which it varies
from ethnomedicinal practices. Second, in contrast to ethnomedicinal practices, where items were mostly employed
as oral administration of crude extracts like juices and
decoctions, the idea of therapeutic formulations was more
established in the folkloric codified system [7]. Finally,
whereas the conventional system is heavily institutionalized, ethnomedical practices are typically handled by a tiny
portion of society and are localized in nature. The natural
products, bacosides from Bacopa monnieri (used as a memory enhancer), artemisinin from Artemisia alba (used as an
antimalarial agent), boswellic acid from Boswellia serrata
(used as an anti-inflammatory agent), and reserpine from
Rauwolfia serpentina (used as an antihypertensive agent),
are a few notable examples of codified systems of medicinebased natural drugs.
A thorough analysis of the findings of studies on various
plant species and their therapeutic principles has given TM
a global boost nowadays. Before the traditional cultures are
entirely lost, all ethnobiological information from the various ethnic populations must be inventoried and recorded.
African, American, Australian, Chinese, Indian, European,
North African, and Conventional Arabic TM are among
the many traditional medicinal systems that are practiced
globally [120]. In order to address health issues in both
industrialized and traditional societies, as well as in thirdworld countries, it is crucial to investigate ethnomedical
systems and the use of medicinal plants as potential therapeutic agents [123]. All around the world, ethnic races and
tribes have created their own unique cultures, cults, religious ceremonies, taboos, totems, folktales, songs, folklore,
delicacies, and medical practices.
Because of the relative lack of access to medications
and the rise in drug resistance, their effects are more pronounced in developing nations [124]. It was revealed that
most of the currently available drugs were initially tested
in crude form in folk practices that indicated the presence of potential biological properties. The insights
gained from these practices have contributed immensely
to contemporary medicine. As a result, there has been a
resurgence of interest in drug development from natural
3.4 Biological Activity of Medicinal Plants 49
sources, despite the well-known complexities involved in
the process. Since plants are frequently taken straight out
of their native habitat, accurate nomenclature and identification are crucial and serve as the foundation for all
other procedures [125]. A mix of techniques, such as
morphological and anatomical characterization combined with genetic and chemical investigation, may be
required for a clear identification. The complex work of
plant taxonomy is made harder by continual alterations
and synonymy problems. Furthermore, certain jobs cannot be automated and require specialists, who are becoming fewer and farther between [126]. These duties include
collecting plant material, accurately documenting it,
identifying it botanically, and preparing herbarium
vouchers.
3.4 Biological Activity of Medicinal Plants
A plant’s ability to treat physiological conditions in humans
is attributed to its chemical constituents. In accordance with
their metabolic processes, all plant species generate chemical compounds as a regular byproduct. Among these plant
bioactive components, alkaloids, tannins, and flavonoids are
the most significant. All plants include primary metabolites
(sugars, proteins, and lipids) and secondary metabolites
(lower amounts of molecules, such as alkaloids, tannins, terpenoids, glycosides, etc.). These two categories of compounds are known as phytochemicals. Natural compounds
generated from plants are utilized in both conventional and
modern medicine to treat various illnesses, including
Alzheimer’s, diabetes, cancer, malaria, arthritis, and cardiovascular conditions. These products are particularly valued
for their potent antioxidant qualities [125].
Plants synthesize a vast array of specialized secondary
metabolites that are highly diverse and comprise a large number of active or complementary chemicals [1]. Many pharmaceuticals and physiologically significant drugs have been
derived from folk medicinal plants. A large proportion of such
drugs have been discovered with the aid of folk knowledge of
the traditional uses of medicinal plants. This old practice of
using plants as substitute pharmaceutical medicines still
exists in contemporary countries. Because of its wide range of
medicinal benefits, traditional Chinese medicine is practiced
in tandem with modern medical care in China. The Academy
of Traditional Chinese Medicine and other training facilities
are among the organizations that have been found to further
traditional Chinese medicine. It’s interesting to note that, with
encouraging outcomes, the Chinese government suggests
combining traditional Chinese medicine with Western medicine to treat pneumonia brought on by SARS-CoV-2 [127].
Table 3.2 lists the commonly used medicinal plants that
are utilized worldwide. These plants are recognized to have
biological action against various diseases and to contain a
variety of active principles with therapeutic potential.
Nonetheless, a plethora of vital substances for medicinal
purposes, including alkaloids, different glycosides, steroids, vitamins, and flavonoids, have been extracted from
this little proportion. It is clear that plants employed in
conventional medical systems can be exploited to create
therapeutically significant and intriguing pharmaceuticals
[125]. The presence of chemicals with varying compositions in these plants gives medications their therapeutic
qualities.
3.4.1 Anticancer Activity
Cancer is a complex and formidable infectious disease with
a feeble survival rate. The WHO states that 70% of cancer
mortality is recorded in people who fall below the poverty
line and in a few middle-class countries [128]. This is due
to the fact, low affordability of the expensive drugs for the
treatment. At present, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and
surgery are the only interim management therapies available. The great threat behind these therapies is that they
aren’t target-specific and destroy both healthy cells and
cancer cells [23].
The repetitive administration of chemotherapeutic medicines is a significant factor in the development of multidrug resistance. It is imperative to consider these factors
when developing treatment plans for cancer patients to
ensure their safety and well-being. A plethora of compounds have been identified from a variety of plant species,
thereby presenting potential therapeutic benefits. However,
the identification of these compounds has not always followed and validated a systematic approach. Many of these
compounds were not staged for testing their biological efficacy against cancer cells.
Plants have long been investigated for their potential therapeutic effects to treat cancer while many plants contain bioactive compounds with promising anticancer properties.
Unlike traditional chemotherapy drugs, which can cause
widespread damage to rapidly dividing cells throughout the
body, therapeutic phytocompounds have been shown to
exhibit preferential cytotoxicity toward cancer cells. The two
alkaloids, vinblastine and vincristine (Catharanthus roseus
of Apocynaceae), paclitaxel (Taxus brevifolia of Taxaceae),
podophyllotoxin (Podophyllum sp.), and camptothecin
(Camptotheca acuminata of Nyssaceae), have been crucial
in the fight against cancer and have greatly improved the
quality of life for many patients [23].
Studies carried out in China revealed that regular consumption of garlic reduces mortality in cases of gastric cancer by
50 3 Folk Medicine as a Source of Therapeutically Important Drugs: Evidence from Ethnobotanical Investigations
Table 3.2 The most common ethnomedicinal plants used in folk practices evidently reported with pharmacological properties.
Binomial name/
family
Abrus precatorius
L. (Fabaceae)
Acalypha indica L.
(Euphorbiaceae)
Acorus calamus L.
(Acoraceae)
Aegle marmelos
(L.) Corrêa
(Rutaceae)
Allium cepa L.
(Amaryllidaceae)
Allium sativum L.
(Amaryllidaceae)
Aloe vera (L.)
Burm.f.
(Asphodelaceae)
Alpinia galanga
(L.) Willd.
(Zingiberaceae)
Anacardium
occidentale L.
(Anacardiaceae)
Andrographis nn
(Burm.f.) Nees
(Acanthaceae)
Azadirachta
indica A.Juss.
(Meliaceae
Parts
used
Root,
seed,
and leaf
Bioactive compounds
Abrectorin, abrusin,
abrisapogenol, cholanoic
acid, Glutathione,
a
hemiphloin, precatorine,
and sophoradiol
Leaf Acalyphine, anthraquinone,
beta, stigmasterol, and
triacetonamine
Rhizome α- and β-asarones, acorone,
calamendiol, calamol,
dehydroxyiso-calamendiol,
and dioxosarcoguaiacol
eugenol
Flower,
root, and
leaf
Aegelenine, aegeline,
caryophyllene, coumarine,
cineol, fragrine,
imperatonin, marmelide,
marmin, psoralen, and
umbelliferone
Bulb β-amyrin, catechol
cepaenes, diallyl disulfide,
and thiosulfinates
Leaf Kaemferol,
protoisoeruboside,
sativioside, and tryptophan
Aerial
spart
Aloe-emodin, aloin, aloesin,
cycloartenol, chrysophanol,
emodin, lophenol, and
physcione
Rhizome Alpha terpineol, limonene,
and camphor.
Leaf,
bark
Beta amyrin, biflavonoid,
campesterol, and
gallocatechin
Leaf β-sitosterol,
andrographolide,
andropaniculosin A, adipic
acid, cinnamic acid,
isoswertisin, onysilin, and
skullcap flavone I
Leaf Azadirachtin, kaempferol,
margosopicrin, nimbin,
nonacosane, and salanin
Folk uses Country Associated experimental studies
Skin cancer and
biliousness [22, 23]
Kenya and
Nepal
Antidiabetic activity,
anticancerous activity, antiinflammatory activity,
antiarthritic activity, and
anthelmintic activity [24]
Diabetes [25] Bangladesh Anthelmintic activity, antiulcer
activity, wound healing property,
and antidiabetic activity [26]
Dengue fever [27] Southern
Nigeria
Anticonvulsant activity,
antidepressant activity,
antihypertensive activity,
anti-inflammatory activity,
analgesic, immunomodulatory
property, neuroprotective
property, and cardioprotective
property [28]
Diabetes [29] Sri Lanka Antidiabetic, anticancer,
antifertility, antimicrobial, and
immunogenic [30]
Rheumatism [31];
prostate cancer
[23]; smallpox [32]
India,
Jordan, and
Northern
Antidiabetic activity, anticancer
activity, and antiplatelet activity
[33]
Nigeria
Indigestion [27] Southern
Nigeria
Antidiabetic activity,
renoprotective property,
antiatherosclerotic activity, and
antihypertensive activity [34]
Leukemia/liver [35] Morocco Cardioprotective property and
antidiabetic activity [36]
Asthma and cough
[37]
India Antiviral activity, antiprotozoal
activity, immunomodulatory
property, antidiabetic activity,
and antiplatelet activity [38]
Liver cancer [23];
and whooping
cough [27]
Ghana and
Southern
Nigeria
Antiulcerogenic activity and
anti-inflammatory activity [39]
Diabetes [6] India Anticancer activity, antimalarial
activity, antihepatitic activity,
anti-hyperglycemic activity, and
anti-inflammatory activity [40]
Diabetes [25];
COVID-19 [32]
Bangladesh
and
Northern
Nigeria
Antiplasmodial activity,
anticancer activity, hypoglycemic
property, insecticidal property,
antidiabetic activity,
neuroprotective property,
hepatoprotective property,
anti-inflammatory activity, and
anthelmintic activity [41]