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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_2725_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
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- •Preface
- •References
- •Contents
- •Author Biographies
- •About the Series Editors
- •Family Medicine Advocacy Summit
- •Robert Graham Center Workforce Studies
- •HealthLandscape
- •Residency Resources
- •Medical Education Policy Development
- •Residency Program Solutions
- •Residency Leadership Summit
- •Chief Resident Leadership Development Program
- •Educational Resources
- •Continuing Medical Education (CME) Tracking
- •Graduate Medical Education Awards
- •Summary
- •References
- •AAFP Structure
- •AAFP Governance
- •Workforce Mission
- •AAFP Workforce Advocacy
- •Residency Redesign
- •References
- •Osteopathic Recognition Requirements
- •Osteopathic Recognition Program Essential Personnel
- •Osteopathic Faculty
- •Osteopathic Recognition Resident Requirements
- •Osteopathic Educational Program Core Competencies
- •Osteopathic Program Evaluation
- •References
- •Reference
- •5: Association of Family Medicine Administration and the Key Role of the Residency Program Coordinator
- •Appendix 1
- •References
- •References
- •Membership Categories within NAPCRG
- •The AAFP Robert Graham Center
- •AAFP National Research Network (NRN)
- •Family Physicians Inquiry Network (FPIN)
- •The Family Medicine Physician-Scientist Pathway (PSP) Program
- •NAPCRG Grant Generating Project
- •Building Research Capacity (BRC)
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Reference
- •9: Family Medicine Residency Accreditation
- •Why Accreditation Matters
- •ACGME Organizational Structure
- •The Family Medicine Review Committee (RCFM)
- •The Clinical Learning Environment Review (CLER)
- •The Site Visit
- •Initial Accreditation Period
- •Subspecialty Fellowship Application
- •The Annual Program Review
- •The Next Accreditation System Annual Review Process
- •Accreditation Data System (ADS)
- •Citations
- •Accreditation Status
- •Program Requirement Development
- •Competency-Based Medical Education (CBME)
- •References
- •10: Graduate Medical Education Funding
- •Introduction
- •Residency Operating Costs
- •Medicare GME Funding
- •Residency Caps
- •Rural Track Programs
- •Inpatient Prospective Payment System (IPPS) Subtype Hospitals
- •Rural Referral Centers
- •Sole Community Hospitals
- •Medicare-Dependent Hospital
- •Medicaid GME Funding
- •Teaching Health Center Funding
- •Veteran’s Administration GME
- •Children’s Hospital GME (CHGME)
- •State Line Item Funding
- •Hospital Supplemental Funding
- •Patient Care Revenue
- •Philanthropy
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Informed Self-Assessment
- •Faculty Development
- •Summary
- •References
- •12: Core Competencies, Milestones, and Entrustable Professional Activities
- •Entrustable Professional Activities
- •Entrustment
- •Pearls
- •Pitfalls
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Educational Strategies
- •Implementation
- •13: A Practical Approach to Curriculum Development
- •Introduction
- •Cognitive Learning Theory
- •Behavioral Learning Theory
- •Humanistic Learning Theory
- •Goals
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Preparation Phase
- •Information Technology Systems
- •Medical Student Rotations
- •Interview Season
- •Application Screening
- •Interview Day
- •Second Looks
- •Postinterview Communication
- •Ranking
- •Using R3®
- •Match® Week
- •SOAP®
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Preboarding
- •Planning New Resident Integration
- •Baseline Assessment
- •Individual Learning Plan
- •Integration Components
- •Longitudinal Integration
- •Learner/Residency/Institutional Goal Alignment
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •History
- •Residency Application
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Identifying Performance Issues
- •Medical Knowledge
- •Patient Care
- •Interpersonal Skills/Communication
- •Professionalism
- •Systems-Based Practice
- •Remediation
- •Medical Knowledge
- •Patient Care
- •Interpersonal Skills/Communication
- •Professionalism
- •Systems-Based Practice
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •19: Faculty Recruitment: Best Practices
- •Background
- •Seeking Out Suitable Candidates: Recruitment Methods
- •Unique Challenges: Faculty Who Are New Residency Graduates
- •Concluding Thoughts: Always Recruit!
- •References
- •20: Faculty Performance
- •Faculty Performance Concerns
- •Appendix 1: Sample Family Medicine Residency Program Director Job Description
- •Job Summary
- •Educational Delivery
- •Evaluation
- •Administration
- •Appendix 2: Sample Family Medicine Residency Core Faculty Job Description
- •Job Summary
- •References
- •21: Faculty Development
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Skills
- •Scholarly Work
- •Tasks that Family Medicine Residency Faculty Perform
- •Role Modeling
- •Faculty Peer Support
- •Teaching
- •Training Courses
- •Workshops
- •Learning by Doing
- •Self-Directed Learning
- •Career Development
- •Organizational Resources
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Promoting Loving Accountability
- •Clinical Setting
- •Curriculum
- •Social Connection
- •Assessment
- •Vision Forward
- •Handling Microaggressions
- •Financial Investment
- •References
- •Building Trust
- •Positionality
- •Set the Stage
- •Normalize Not Knowing
- •Probing, Not Prodding
- •Accurate
- •Addressing Implicit Bias
- •Micro-Level
- •Macro-Level
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Background
- •Risk Factors
- •Stigma
- •FSMB Recommendations Regarding Licensing Questions
- •Physician Health Programs (PHP)
- •Individual-Level Actions
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •References
- •The Clinical Learning Environment
- •Feedback
- •References
- •27: Teaching Maternal Health Care
- •ACGME Requirements
- •Obstetric Family Medicine Faculty Shortage
- •Maternity Care Curricular Elements
- •Preconception Care
- •Prenatal Care
- •Immunizations
- •Common Conditions Which Complicate Pregnancy
- •Breastfeeding
- •Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)
- •Substance Use
- •Food Insecurity
- •Inpatient Obstetrical Care
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Family Medicine Residency Advocacy Curricular Development
- •Evaluation
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Faculty Leadership
- •Resident Leadership
- •Patient Satisfaction
- •Professional Conduct
- •Ethical Considerations
- •Curriculum Development
- •The Hidden Curriculum
- •Conclusion
- •Context Matters
- •References
- •30: Teaching Behavioral Science
- •Introduction
- •Core Mental Health Topics
- •Patient-Centered Communication Skills
- •Contextual Care
- •Integrated Behavioral Health Care
- •Master Adaptive Learner
- •Clinic-Based Learning
- •Classroom-Based Learning
- •Interprofessional Education
- •Balint Groups
- •Conclusion
- •Appendix 1: Sample Behavioral Health Rotation (Myerholtz 2023)
- •References
- •31: Teaching Evidence-Based Medicine
- •Introduction
- •Longitudinal Deep Dives
- •Journal Club
- •Family Physicians Inquiries Network
- •Case-Based Learning
- •Day-to-Day Integration
- •Curriculum Development Tips Summary
- •Institutional Involvement
- •Summary
- •References
- •32: Teaching Practice Management
- •Background
- •Current Curriculum
- •Activities
- •Quality Improvement Project
- •Virtual Practice Instructions
- •Presenters
- •Topics Covered
- •References
- •Overview
- •Why Training Is Needed
- •Stressing Communication
- •Balint Group
- •Putting It All Together
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Broad Scope
- •Primary Contact
- •Emerging Technology
- •Rural Generalism
- •Public Health Advocate
- •Rural Practice Systems
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Basic Logistics
- •Operational Considerations
- •Billing Requirements
- •Additional Funding Considerations
- •Engaged Leadership
- •The FMC-Residency Partnership
- •Scheduling
- •Data-Driven Improvement
- •Empanelment
- •Panel Weighting
- •Panel Transitions
- •Team-Based Care
- •Population Management
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Personnel Management
- •Meeting Management
- •Communication Management
- •References
- •37: Managing Change in Family Medicine Residency Programs
- •Introduction
- •What Is Change Management?
- •Change Management Case Study
- •Kotter Model
- •Step 1: Create Urgency
- •Step 4: Communicate Buy-In
- •WIFM Worksheet
- •Step 5: Empower Others
- •Step 6: Generate Quick Wins
- •Step 7: Consolidate Gains
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Negotiating Styles
- •Collaboration
- •Summary
- •References
- •Anticipating Task Cycles
- •Residency
- •Home Life
- •Seize Control
- •Delegate
- •Delegate Residency Chores
- •Delegate Domestic Chores
- •Exercise
- •Lunch
- •Organizing
- •Summary
- •References
- •Introduction
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Anticipate Common Disasters
- •Learn About Your Regional Emergency Infrastructure
- •Learn Your Organization’s Command Center Structures
- •Here Are Some Alternative Care Site Scenarios That May Arise
- •Regional Emergency Infrastructure
- •Managing Your Program During Disaster
- •Community Recovery
- •Consolidate Your Learning
- •Author Background
- •References
- •Conclusion

362
J. L. Wilson
Developing theCurriculum
As you develop curricula, keep in mind these four tenets for
ideal adult learning:
• Content must be relevant, realistic, and important.
• There should be direct, concrete experiences in which the
learning may be applied.
• There must be an opportunity to practice and follow up.
• It should occur in a culture free of fear and judgment
[19]
The optimal EBM curriculum can meet these criteria if it
incorporates the following three elements:
• A strong foundation laid during orientation with an interactive introduction to concepts and short-term practice
• Longitudinal, regularly occurring deep dives into the
application of the concepts
• Day-to-day integration of EBM principles in practice
with role-modeling by faculty
Introduction ofEBM Curricula
Begin your EBM curriculum on day 1 of residency. The
expectation should be set that EBM is not just a way to practice medicine but is the way to practice in your program.
Orientation should reect the values of the program and generally offers the most exibility to hold these introductory
sessions.
Table 31.2 is a suggested schedule that can be used during
a 4-week orientation block to introduce the concepts of
EBM.It is not exhaustive of all concepts a family physician
should know but serves as a framework for early instruction
about important principles with frequent opportunities to
practice.
The introductory sessions should ideally follow the pro-
cess outlined in Fig.31.3. The sessions should be as interactive and clinically integrated as possible and should include
opportunities to practice with clinical scenarios. The examples covered previously are great ways to introduce the concepts of test characteristics, risk calculations, and basic
EBM thinking. The previously referenced series by Barratt
etal. in the CMAJ provides additional workshop ideas and
details.
The introduction of new concepts should ideally happen
on subsequent days. Attempting to squeeze all of EBM into
an afternoon or full day is a recipe for cognitive overload,
poor retention, and little subsequent application. Short-term
follow-up sessions (within a week) with brief opportunities
(no more than an hour) to practice each concept will enhance
understanding and retention. Finally, there should be an
opportunity to bring it all together with sessions on the
appraisal of medical literature and interactive case-based
medical decision-making.
Table 31.2 Sample EBM Orientation Schedule
Week 1
Day 1
EBM pre-test
Fundamentals of diagnostic reasoning—problem
representation and illness scripts
Practice cases
Day 3
Test characteristics (sensitivity, specicity, predictive
values) workshop with practice
Day 5
Practice cases for this week’s concepts, introduce
likelihood ratios
Week 2
Day 1
Risk workshop (RR, RRR, ARR, AR, NNT, NNH)
Practice problems
Day 3
Screening tests and evidence grading
Practice problems (review concepts from risk workshop)
Day 5
Case-based learning
Week 3
Day 1
Developing PICO questions and practice
Day 5
Case-based learning
Week 4
Day 1
Journal club appraisal process
Day 3
Journal club practice
Day 5
Case-based learning
EBM Post-test
Longitudinal Deep Dives
Maintenance is always more difcult than a concentrated
introductory experience. Fortunately, there are several avenues to incorporate these concepts into what your program is
already doing. There are resources available that can be incorporated into the curricula. Ideally, you are linking the EBM
concepts to medical decision-making in some manner.
Journal Club
Imagine what it would be like if residents were responsible
for leading journal club sessions, waited until the night
before to nd an article, “couldn’t really nd” the answer to
the question, then ultimately picked a tangentially -related
article from 1982 with a sample size of 32 and stood at the
front of the room to talk at their peers and possibly a few
attendings. Unfortunately, many of us don’t have to imagine
this particular scenario and instead have been forced to survive it. What happens then is a general sense of dread surrounding journal club. No one is really forced to consider

31 Teaching Evidence-Based Medicine
363
new hot-off-the-press medical information and its application to patient care, and EBM continues to be that thing that
only nerds really get into.
But there are some programs that do journal clubs really
well, and there is some help out there to avoid some of the
pitfalls they can slip into. Here are some characteristics of
highly-functioning journal clubs:
• Both residents and faculty attend and participate
• It is scheduled during the day as a routine part of didactics
(i.e., not an optional evening activity)
• A faculty champion holds residents accountable for
selecting articles ahead of time and coaches them on the
search/article identication
• It is not a lecture but rather an interactive conversation led
by the resident
• A formal or standardized approach to appraisal is
employed
• Participants have the article ahead of time and available at
the time of the session (most won’t read it beforehand)
• Food never hurts [20] (anecdotal evidences suggest baked
goods may be particularly effective)
Perhaps the most difcult part of journal club is arranging
an adequate article selection. Without some signicant time
dedicated to one-on-one coaching from a faculty member or
medical librarian with some expertise, it is difcult to get
residents to select a relevant article in a timely manner. One
way around this is to have residents select from a pre-vetted
list of articles like the ones in the American Board of Family
Medicine National Journal Club available through the ABFM
physician portfolio. The benets of doing so are numerous:
the article has already been vetted for its relevance, it removes
a signicant barrier of decision paralysis residents might
experience, it offers some expert critique for the resident to
review, and it offers points toward CME/KSA credit that faculty and residents alike can take advantage of. The disadvantage, of course, is the lost opportunity to engage in the PICO
question process or to recognize a poorly performed trial.
Regardless of the selection method chosen, having a standardized appraisal process after an article is chosen is critical. Having this process repeated each month will formalize
the way residents read and critique an article by assessing
internal and external validity via methods specic to the article type. The Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine offers
examples of appraisal worksheets online for many study
types and can be used as is or as a starting place to develop
your own [21]. Trisha Greenhalgh’s How to Read a Paper is
an excellent resource for an in-depth discussion on critical
appraisal and also offers examples of appraisal worksheets in
the appendices [2].
Below is a suggested timeline for your journal club
session:
• At the beginning of the year: send out the schedule of who
will lead the journal club on each date
• The week before: send out the article to all faculty and
residents (and do so with heaping optimism they will all
read it before the session)
• On the day
– Have several copies of the article printed and have
printed critical appraisal sheets available
– Divide the room up into small groups of no more than
4–5 individuals
– Have the small groups read the article (if they haven’t
already) and complete an appraisal form together;
15minutes
– The assigned resident leads a full group discussion
using the appraisal sheet; 15minutes
– If applicable, the assigned resident leads a full group
through the ABFM National Journal Club questions;
10minutes
– The remaining time can be used to discuss how the
group will or will not apply the results in practice
• After the session: as soon after the session as possible,
contact the next resident about his/her assigned date to
lead journal club and send weekly reminders about article
selection and the process.
Family Physicians Inquiries Network
Family Physicians Inquiries Network (FPIN) is a subscriptionbased organization that provides a variety of levels of program
membership. FPIN provides EBM educational tools (like
online modules), workshops, and opportunities for professional development for both residents and faculty. It includes
opportunities for peer review, editorial skill development,
writing opportunities, and leadership positions [18]. Many
programs have successfully used FPIN’s tools to develop faculty and resident scholarship and EBM-related education.
Case-Based Learning
Although not classically considered EBM-focused per se,
case-based learning (CBL) is a practical and useful way to
practice the implementation of EBM principles. CBL is typically easy to implement into the didactic curriculum of a
residency program.
Many programs have some version of a “morbidity and
mortality” conference that focuses on patient safety. While
the focus of morbidity and mortality conferences (or their
equivalent) tends to be on root cause analysis and systems
issues, all of them offer opportunities to delve into medical
decision-making and thus EBM.The key is to structure the
sessions so they are not a presentation but rather a discussion. The resident leader should begin with the patient presentation and then pause for audience input on what the next
steps should be. This allows for discussion about building a
problem representation and matching it to illness scripts and

364
J. L. Wilson
building a differential diagnosis (See Appendix: Problem
Representation and Illness Scripts).
Pretest probability, critical information gathering, test
interpretation, and application of known evidence to the case
can be revisited at each point a clinical decision needs to be
made or there is a change in clinical status.
Additional case-based sessions can be held with a full
emphasis on the decision-making aspects. These cases can be
from your own program or, if you’d like something fully
eshed out to save some time, there are multiple available
resources out there. Both JAMA and NEJM have clinical cases
that are presented in a stepwise fashion with a focus on building the differential diagnosis and clinical decision- making to
reach a diagnosis. My personal favorite is from the NEJM
Evidence Journal Morning Report section [22]. These articles
have downloadable slides of gures and are broken down into
sections that are easily translated into an hour- long didactic
session. The breaks within the articles are rich opportunities for
small groups to discuss decision points. NEJM Resident 360
also offers interactive medical cases that could be used for this
purpose, allows individual users to answer questions online as
they progress through the case, and offers CME credit [9].
For an even more in-depth and data-driven experience,
NEJM Healer is a subscription-based program focused on medical decision-making. It is a computer-based interactive practice
tool to assess clinical reasoning and knowledge through the generation of problem representations and matching them to illness
scripts. Feedback about learner performance as it compares to
expert diagnosticians is provided along the way [10]. For a longitudinal individual experience, this is a great way for faculty to
track their personal progress toward mastery skills that are otherwise evaluated in a much less standardized way.
Day-to-Day Integration
The hardest part of teaching EBM is the day-to-day integration throughout the program and creating a culture in which
your faculty and residents have a shared mental model of
how to approach diagnosis and treatment using EBM principles. To accomplish this, you must be deliberate and get
buy-in from all faculty. Often, this will mean training them
just as you train your residents. In fact, developing a shared
mental model is probably impossible unless you offer the
same learning sessions to faculty as offered to the residents.
And let’s face it: as previously mentioned, no one in the
course of patient care—whether it be in clinic, the hospital,
or labor and delivery—is going to sequentially complete all
the steps outlined in Fig.31.1. But there are real, tangible
strategies for keeping up a shared mental model and adherence to EBM principles in daily practice. We should help our
residents become lifelong learners and practicing the principles of EBM is one way to accomplish that. In the midst of
clinical teaching, the teacher should judiciously select a
small element of EBM and apply it to a given clinical
encounter. Don’t try to do too much at once or your residents
will become distracted and fall behind in their clinical work.
Table 31.3 offers suggested prompts or questions for your
faculty to use on-the-y with residents in clinic or other settings. These simple questions can lead to a rich discussion
Table 31.3 Examples of on-the-y EBM teaching prompts
Faculty script Discussion
What is your problem representation? A good problem representation includes patient demographics, relevant past medical history, personal
risk factors, the pattern of illness over time, and key signs and symptoms that allow discrimination
between conditions or development of a differential diagnosis. If the resident is struggling, sometimes
you may offer a concise problem representation from what the resident has told you that allows them to
match it to an illness script. Alternatively, you may identify key pieces of information missing from
their data collection that preclude formation of an adequate problem representation
Can you match that problem
representation to an illness script?
How can this patient expand your
illness script?
Why are you ordering that test? Is it a
diagnostic or screening test?
Why are you ordering that treatment? Is it based on a guideline? Data? Anecdotes? Biologic plausibility? Because they saw someone else do
Will the result change your
management?
What outcome are you aiming for? This question can be helpful to clarify thinking about a visit. Are we trying to decrease mortality?
If the resident has an inadequate problem representation, guide them to consider additional factors that
would allow discrimination between clinical conditions that may then lead to illness script-matching
If the resident has a good problem representation but can’t match it to an illness script, it may be
because they don’t have accurate or expansive enough illness scripts, or it may be a matching issue
Example: a resident doesn’t recognize molluscum contagiosum because there were only a few lesions
and none were umbilicated. This is a chance for them to expand their illness script to include pearly
smooth lesions without umbilication
All tests t one or the other category. If it’s diagnostic, it’s an opportunity to discuss pre- and post-test
probability. If it’s screening, it’s an opportunity to discuss the evidence behind that. If they aren’t sure,
they probably don’t need to be ordering it
it? Patient request, therapeutic/diagnostic trials, and other surprising answers may creep into the
resident’s reasoning. If nothing else, this is a chance for the resident to reect on their existing
knowledge. At best, it’s a chance to discuss evidence or develop a PICO question
If it won’t change management, don’t do it! This question invites a discussion about pre- and post-test
probabilities
Prevent morbidity? Simply comfort the patient?
This question can be asked before a visit as well. E.g., a patient presents to follow up for hypertension,
and the (or maybe one) answer is to decrease their risk of cardiovascular disease

31 Teaching Evidence-Based Medicine
365
and bring to the fore the importance of EBM principles in the
approach to the patient.
For inpatient services, there is often more time to actually complete the steps outlined in Fig. 31.1. Consider
requiring your residents to develop a weekly PICO question, research it, and bring the evidence to the team for
application. For optimal results, have the residents keep a
log of PICO questions and best-evidence answers for the
program. It will help hold the residents and program
accountable, solidify the process of using EBM in practice,
and create a repository of evidence the faculty and residents
may refer to in the future.
Finally, you must have a way to measure if you’re developing an EBM culture. If you’re just getting started, you’re
going to have to hold educational sessions more often. Give
your faculty specic tasks, specic scripts, and specic
expectations. Then, to measure, survey your residents and/or
faculty. It’s easy to measure how many lectures, workshops,
journal clubs, and other sessions set aside for EBM teaching
is occurring. However, the true learner-oriented outcome is
whether your residents feel that their medical decisionmaking is inuenced and improved by their education and
interactions with their faculty. Specically, if you have given
your faculty specic talking points or scripts, ask residents if
they hear faculty using them in practice. Ask the residents
how often they have discussions about pre- and post-test
probability. The only practical way to know if EBM
principles are being deliberately applied is by asking. Just
like the educational process, do it early and often!
Curriculum Development Tips Summary
• Begin intern orientation with signicant time dedicated to EBM principles
• Include faculty in all learning sessions for residents
and do so on a longitudinal and recurring basis
• Provide scripts for faculty to use (Table 31.4) in
clinical settings and encourage implementation of
EBM principles
• Assign faculty duties related to EBM-related
learning
• Survey residents and faculty on EBM culture
Table 31.4 Problem representation exercise examples
Novice problem representation and illness
Patient-provided information
42-year-old woman, BMI 38, normal
vitals: I am having belly pain in the middle
and right side that comes and goes. It
makes me vomit what I eat and lasts for
several hours, usually after I eat a large
meal. I haven’t had any changes to my
bowel movements. In between episodes I
feel ne. It has been going on for several
months but is getting more common and
now is most days
61-year-old man with hypertension,
dyslipidemia, gout, and tobacco use. He
has hypertensive but otherwise normal
vital signs: I am feeling short of breath
when walking up the stairs in my house. It
goes away after I rest a few minutes. Over
the last few months, I haven’t had any
pain. At night, I’m having to sleep in my
recliner so I can breathe. I’ve noticed both
ankles are swelling but I don’t have any
leg pain
6-year-old with a history of recurrent
streptococcal pharyngitis, temperature of
102.4F and otherwise normal vital signs.,
rapid strep test was negative. On exam,
cervical adenopathy and tonsillar
hypertrophy with erythema and white-grey
exudate: Sore throat and fevers began
2days ago. His mother reports he has also
complained about his stomach hurting and
he has vomited twice. He has had strep
throat four or ve times in the last 2years.
Several children in his kindergarten class
have been sick recently with sore throat
script matching
My patient is a 42-year-old woman who
comes in with abdominal pain. Sometimes
she vomits. She feels okay now. She could
have gastroenteritis. She could also have
an ulcer or pancreatitis. I would like to get
a CT of the abdomen to evaluate
My patient is a 61-year-old with shortness
of breath. He’s also had some swelling of
his legs. He doesn’t have any pain.
Pneumonia, COPD, asthma, and heart
disease could cause shortness of breath.
Because he’s had some swelling, I am
also worried about DVT.I would like to
get a chest x-ray and lower extremity
Doppler to look for a DVT
My patient is a 6-year-old with fever, sore
throat, abdominal pain, and vomiting. His
strep test was negative. He could have
gastroenteritis. He could also have
appendicitis. We should get a CBC and
abdominal ultrasound to see what is going
on. We should also get a COVID test
Expert problem representation and illness script
matching
My patient is a 42-year-old woman with obesity who
presents with a subacute course of increasingly
frequent post-prandial epigastric and right upper
quadrant pain associated with nausea and vomiting.
The episodes can last several hours and she feels well
between them. She is afebrile and is not jaundiced.
This is likely biliary colic. I would like to evaluate
with a right upper quadrant ultrasound. Peptic ulcer
disease is also possible but she doesn’t have risk
factors for that
My patient is a 61-year-old man with a history of
uncontrolled hypertension and tobacco use who
presents with subacute worsening dyspnea on exertion
relieved by rest and orthopnea. He also has had some
non-painful bilateral lower extremity edema. He does
not have any chest pain or infectious symptoms. This
is most likely a new diagnosis of heart failure, and I
would like to evaluate with echocardiography. Chronic
lung disease like COPD is possible but think this is a
less likely cause of his presentation because of the
orthopnea and lower extremity swelling
My patient is a 6-year-old with a history of recurrent
streptococcal pharyngitis who presents with acute
onset fevers and sore throat, cervical adenopathy, and
erythematous tonsils with exudate. He has had sick
contacts at school with streptococcal pharyngitis.
Despite the fact he had a negative rapid test for strep,
his presentation is clinically consistent with strep
throat and he is at high risk based on his personal
history and sick contacts. I would like to proceed with
treatment for strep throat and we can send the swab
for culture. Infectious mononucleosis could cause
similar ndings but would be less likely in his age
group

366
J. L. Wilson
Institutional Involvement
Your electronic health record (EHR) probably gives you
alerts on patients regarding cancer screenings, vaccination
status, and other quality metrics. Find out how the decisions
to include specic alerts are made and explore whether
someone in your residency can participate on that committee. If an ofcial process and/or committee is not in place,
lobby for one. Having family physician representation on
such a panel is not only important for the institution but is
also an opportunity to practice EBM on a much larger scale
than in the individual exam room.
Summary
EBM may seem daunting to both faculty and residents, partly
because of the way it is introduced in medical school.
Demystifying EBM early during residency and practicing it
frequently is key to developing an EBM culture in your program. EBM is not a rigid, treat-everyone-the-same way of
practicing medicine. EBM is not drawing out equations in
the exam room. It is actually just a set of tools that improve
a physician’s decision-making for individual patients. Once
you get buy-in from residents and faculty on that, you are
well on your way to developing a robust curriculum.
Introduce EBM early, maintain it longitudinally using a variety of formats in a variety of settings, employing andragogical principles, and measure your results! After all, wouldn’t
that be the evidence-based way to do it?
Appendix: Problem Representation
andIllness Scripts
Embed EBM intheDiagnostic Process
Starting with a shared mental model of the diagnostic process and deliberately including it into a signposted EBM curriculum will highlight the applicability of EBM. Getting
residents to truly believe that EBM is practical and useful,
not an esoteric exercises in the ivory tower, is crucial. Two
concepts that help in the development of a shared mental
model of the diagnostic process are problem representations
and illness scripts. Problem representations are concise,
specic summaries of the dening features of a medical
presentation. Good problem representations highlight the
following:
• Patient demographics
• Relevant past medical history
• Patient risk factors
• Pattern of illness (length and tempo)
• Key signs and symptoms
In addition to those components, useful problem representations translate patient-specic data to abstract terms.
For example, the length of illness may be described as “subacute” rather than “3 weeks long.” Paired, opposing descriptors are effective methods of thinking through a diagnostic
problem and developing abstractions from patient-reported
data (e.g., describing a cough as productive versus nonproductive, a skin lesion as stable versus changing, or a
patient as high- versus low-risk for cardiovascular disease).
Encourage your residents to give you a “one-liner” or summary of a case when precepting with you. This should take
the form of a problem representation.
Illness scripts are mental representations of diseases and
conditions. A fully eshed out illness script includes the
following:
• Predisposing conditions
• Pathophysiologic basis
• Clinical consequence
The job of the diagnostician is to collect data, formulate a
problem representation, and then match it to an illness script
or develop a plan to discriminate among the list of diseases
in the differential diagnosis [7]. This can either occur as an
automatic process (pattern recognition in which an illness
script is quickly matched) or a more deliberate, slow process
that relies on the development of a differential diagnosis.
These are known as the intuitive (Type 1) and analytical
(Type 2) systems of reasoning according to dual-process
theories of cognition [6].
Introduce the concepts of problem representation and
illness scripts to your residents in the model of diagnostic
reasoning shown in Fig.31.5 and quickly jump into practicebased exercises. You can give them a variety of starting
points. Offer them patient-provided information and then
challenge them in small groups to create the best possible
problem representation. Another useful exercise is to give
the residents patient-provided information and examples of
imperfect problem representations and ask how a preceptor
Fig. 31.5 Model of diagnostic reasoning using dual-processing
theory

31 Teaching Evidence-Based Medicine
367
should work with the resident to improve the problem
representation. Finally, when discussing a differential diagnosis, ask what the groups’ illness scripts are for each condition. Examples of problem representation exercises are
described in Table31.4. These can provide a framework for
developing a workshop and can be expanded as needed. It is
also a helpful exercise for faculty to think about how they
would guide a resident presenting an inadequate problem
representation.
References
1. Sackett DL, Rosenberg WM, Gray JA, Haynes RB, Richardson
WS.Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn’t. BMJ.
1996;312(7023):71–2.
2. Greenhalgh T.How to read a paper: the basics of evidence-based
medicine and healthcare. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 2019.
3. US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for chlamydia and
gonorrhea: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation
Statement. JAMA. 2021;326(10):949–56.
4. Barratt A, Wyer PC, Hatala R, McGinn T, Dans AL, Keitz S, Moyer
V, For GG. Evidence-Based Medicine Teaching Tips Working
Group. Tips for learners of evidence-based medicine: 1. Relative
risk reduction, absolute risk reduction and number needed to treat.
CMAJ. 2004;171(4):353–8.
5. Visual Rx. 2023. https://www.nntonline.net/visualrx/
6. Croskerry PMD, PhD.A universal model of diagnostic reasoning.
Acad Med. 2009;84(8):1022–8.
7. Bowen JL. Educational strategies to promote clinical diagnostic
reasoning. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(21):2217–25.
8. The Clinical Problem Solvers. 2023. https://clinicalproblemsolv-
ing.com/
9. NEJM Resident 360. 2023. https://resident360.nejm.org/
10. NEJM Healer. 2023. https://healer.nejm.org/
11. Evidence-based Medicine Toolkit. 2023. https://www.aafp.org/
pubs/afp/authors/ebm- toolkit.html
12. The Centre for Evidence-based Medicine. 2023. https://www.cebm.
net/
13. Guyatt G, Rennie D, Meade MO, Cook DJ. Users’ guides to the
medical literature: a manual for evidence-based clinical practice,
3rd ed. NewYork: McGraw-Hill.
14. Viera AJ.Odds ratios and risk ratios: what’s the difference and why
does it matter? South Med J. 2008;101(7):730–4.
15. Finding the evidence: a how-to guide. 2023. https://www.cebm.
ox.ac.uk/resources/ebm- tools/nding- the- evidence- tutorial
16. Family Medicine Residency Curriculum Resource. 2023. https://
www.fammedrcr.com/
17. Journal Club– American Board of Family Medicine. 2023. https://
journalclub.theabfm.org/
18. Family Physicians Inquiries Network. 2023. https://www.fpin.org/
19. Das K, Malick S, Khan KS.Tips for teaching evidence-based medicine in a clinical setting: lessons from adult learning theory. Part
one. J R Soc Med. 2008;101(10):493–500.
20. Sidorov J. How are internal medicine residency journal clubs
organized, and what makes them successful? Arch Intern Med.
1995;155(11):1193–7.
21. Critical appraisal tools. 2023. https://www.cebm.ox.ac.uk/
resources/ebm- tools/critical- appraisal- tools
22. NEJM Evidence Morning Report. 2023. https://evidence.nejm.org/
browse/evidence- article- type/morning- report

Teaching Practice Management
MaxBayard andJamesHolt
32
Key Points
• Practice management (PM) training has been required by
the RRC for Family Medicine (FM) for many years.
• Many FM residency programs have struggled to provide
good training in PM.
• Programs with an interactive approach result in a better
experience for the residents.
• We describe our curriculum, which includes a strong
interactive component.
Background
Residency training in Family Medicine prepares future family physicians to handle all clinical aspects of practice: well
care and disease management, inpatient and outpatient, routine and emergent care. Family Medicine training also
includes a mandate to prepare residents to manage a medical
practice, that is, practice management; this contrasts with
other medical specialties. In fact, for many years, the
ACGME Residency Review Committee for Family Medicine
had specic time requirements for training in Practice
Management.
There have been some changes over the years in the
ACGME requirements for practice management training in
family medicine residencies. In the early 2000s, programs
were required to provide 60hours of practice management
training to family medicine residents. This was increased to
100 hours of “health systems management experiences,
designed to prepare residents to be active participants and
leaders in their practices, their communities, and the profession of medicine.” New guidelines became effective in July
2023, stating that residents must have a “dedicated experi-
M. Bayard · J. Holt (*)
East Tennessee State University Quillen College of Medicine,
Johnson City, TN, USA
e-mail: BAYARD@mail.etsu.edu; HOLTJ@mail.etsu.edu
ence” in health systems management [1], but the specic
number of hours was removed.
There is little information in the medical literature
addressing family medicine practice management training.
Family Medicine residency directors were surveyed in 1999.
In this study, Program Directors’ rating of the effectiveness
of their practice management education was positively associated with increased time commitment and active learning
strategies [2]. One residency program published their curriculum and demonstrated that a simulated practice approach
is more helpful than a standard didactic curriculum [3]. A
systematic review of residency practice management curricula concluded that there were few published studies of the
outcomes of practice management-related curricula. The
authors recommended that training programs should evaluate the results of their programs and publish these results [4].
History ofOur Curriculum
Around the year 2000, we were challenged by our residents to
improve our practice management (PM) training. Prior to that
time, the PM “curriculum” consisted of a 2-day didactic workshop at the beginning of the PGY2 year and monthly 4-hour
sessions during the PGY3 year when residents would meet
informally with local physicians to discuss issues related to
managing a medical practice. A survey was created to assess
residents’ knowledge/comfort of 13 areas recommended in
the American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP)
Curriculum Guidelines for Family Medicine resident training
in PM.Of these 13 areas, residents scored poorly in all but one
(determining and balancing personal and professional goals).
Believing that people learn better from doing than from hearing, we developed a curriculum that had many more “handson” activities by the residents. The initial response by the
residents to this new approach was enthusiastic. A more indepth review of this initial curriculum can be found in an article published in the journal Family Medicine [5].
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
R. Kellerman, G. Irwin (eds.), Graduate Medical Education in Family Medicine, Excellence in Medical Education 2,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-70741-4_32
369

370
M. Bayard and J. Holt
The curriculum still is built around the development of a
virtual practice by the residents. Although the actual topics
covered and the time allocated have evolved over the last
20years, the virtual practice has been the core of the experience. It is like a “hub”: interactive didactics are presented,
and that information is then taken and applied to their virtual
practices. Similarly, they apply research on practice styles,
personnel issues, marketing, and so on. Residents directly
benet from the information they are given, as they apply it
to “building” their virtual practices.
Residents frequently cite the PM curriculum as being a
high point of their residency training. They are engaged with
visiting presenters, as they take the information presented
and apply it to their practices. They huddle up together in the
dedicated “free” time to seek out answers to questions they
come up with about the business of medicine. The following
is a description of the current state of our Practice
Management curriculum.
Current Curriculum
Timing andSchedule
didactics four or ve half-days a week. Any remaining time
is available for the teams to work on their virtual practices.
During this block, PGY2 residents have minimal hospital
call responsibilities. Annual leave is not permitted during
this block.
Activities
Two primary activities take place during the PM block: a
quality improvement project and development of the virtual
practice. For these projects, the residents form two groups of
three residents each. A description of these two projects is
below.
An additional activity during this month relates to resident leadership. A didactic panel session focuses on physician leadership roles. PGY2 residents are presented with
opportunities for leadership roles as they transition to PGY3
residents. In our program, each PGY3 resident has an area of
leadership. These areas of leadership, in addition to two
chief residents, are as follows: patient safety, community,
resident wellness, research, and recruiting.
Our PM rotation is a block rotation in the middle of the
PGY2 year. It is the 8th of 13 blocks, generally starting in
late January and lasting for 4weeks. We had previously done
a longitudinal rotation, but the block has many advantages.
These include scheduling all the PGY2 residents simultaneously, coordinating continuity clinic, faculty scheduling, and
several other benets. In addition, it’s a nice opportunity for
the PGY2 class to get back together for a month and collaborate on their projects. Of course, it’s also socially nice to
have minimal hospital responsibilities and just to be able to
spend this month together with their peers.
The timing of the rotation (mid-PGY2 year) is not random. At this point in their training, residents are thinking
seriously about their future practices; however, many of
them have not yet committed to a practice. Because our hospital service consists of a PGY3, a PGY2, and a PGY1 resident, we have to do this in a block in which two PGY1
residents can serve on the team with a PGY3, as all PGY2s
will be doing PM together. The 8th block of the year works
well as all PGY1 residents have had a minimum of 6weeks’
hospital coverage and are prepared to contribute well to our
inpatient service.
The schedule during the PM block includes time for routine residency responsibilities as well as dedicated PM activities. In addition to our residency program’s regular weekly
didactic half-day, residents will see continuity patients two
or three half-days per week. They will engage in interactive
Quality Improvement Project
Quality Improvement (QI) is addressed on the rst day of the
PM block. This is an interactive didactic experience in which
residents are initially presented with principles of QI from
the Institute for Healthcare Improvement (IHI). These can be
found on the IHI website [6]. The Model for Improvement is
discussed with residents. There are two parts of The Model.
First ask three questions, which can be asked in any order:
• What are we trying to accomplish?
• How will we know that a change is an improvement?
• What change can we make that will result in
improvement?
Second is to test these changes using the PDSA cycle
(Plan–Do–Study–Act).
During this session, residents break out into two groups
of three (we have six residents per PGY year). They are
charged with trying to come up with as many things as they
can that could use improvement. In consultation with PM
course faculty, they choose one area for which they would
like to do a QI project. They have 1week to fully design the
project. This leaves them two more weeks during this PM
block to work on the projects. This has generated a lot of
enthusiasm, as they are also encouraged to turn these projects into scholarly presentations at one or more regional
conferences. This project also fullls requirements by the
ACGME and the ABFM.

32 Teaching Practice Management
371
Virtual Practice Instructions
The virtual practice is an assignment that begins on the rst
day of the block and continues throughout the 4weeks. Over
the 4weeks, residents engage in didactics and group research
and develop their practices, generally in a PowerPoint format
(though paper would be acceptable). These practices are then
presented during the last week of the block. Faculty,
Department Chair, and other residents attend the formal
presentation.
Topics to be addressed in the presentation include the
following:
1. Type of practice (fee for service, direct primary care,
etc.)
2. Practice location
3. Employees
(a) Number of employees
(i) Number of providers and their credentials (i.e.,
physician, nurse practitioner, etc.)
(ii) Number and educational expectations of clinical
support staff
(iii) Number of administrative staff
(b) Job descriptions for employees
(c) Salaries and benets
4. Services offered
(a) Procedures to be performed
(b) Location of services (inpatient, outpatient)
(c) Clinic hours or other availability
5. Detailed budget
(a) Expected income based on appropriate E/M coding
(b) Other sources of income
(i) Procedures
(ii) Merit-based
(iii) Direct primary care fees, if applicable
(iv) Hospital guarantee
(v) Others
(c) Expenses
6. Electronic health record
In addition to the above expected components of the prac-
tice, some residents have been creative and have added fun
extras, such as designing brochures for the practice, creating
drawings of the building, and drawing oor plans.
This development of the virtual practice is the cornerstone
of the PM month. Residents are engaged with the presenters,
as they will take the information presented and apply it to their
practices. Obviously, only a percentage of the sessions directly
relate to the virtual practices, but we feel the overall enthusiastic atmosphere during this month is attributed to the active
involvement of the residents in the learning experience.
Presenters
Didactics are primarily presented by local physicians as well
as individuals in a variety of business disciplines. For the
most part, these are representative of professionals who can
be found in nearly any region. Within our residency faculty,
we have two faculty who have signicant private practice
experience, including having started medical practices. The
primary exception to speakers being local is a two-day session that is led by our primary medical liability carrier in
Tennessee, State Volunteer Mutual Insurance Company
(SVMIC). Among the services SVMIC offers, in addition to
liability coverage, are practice management and human
resource assistance. They volunteer their time to present a
number of topics related to management, human resources,
and legal issues. See the table below for a listing of presenters and topics.
Practice Management Didactic Sessions
Topic Presenter Description
Intro to PM Course Director Overview of course
Intro to QI Course Director QI Principles from IHI
Hospital nances Local hospital
CFO
Interviewing University HR
representative
Basic accounting Local CPA Business structures for medical practices (LLC, partnership, etc.)
“Game” of Practice Management Jeopardy
Residents individually consider possible improvement projects
Residents gather in small groups and decide on a project
Not-for-prot hospital structure
Industry healthcare insights and challenges
DRG reimbursement methods
Effect of physician shortage on hospitals
Effect of coding and documentation on quality and nances
Inpatient and outpatient services and how margin is generated
Interviewing basics: both in applying for a job and in interviewing potential employees
Basic accounting methods
Tax and record-keeping responsibilities
(continued)

372
Topic Presenter Description
Contracts/FM
incentives
Direct primary
care (DPC)
Large group
practice
Contracts Local lawyer with
Hospital
recruiting and
stark laws
Insurance denials Residency
Managed care MBA (SVMIC) Fee for service vs. value-based care
Revenue cycle
management
Governance Lawyer (SVMIC) Administration of a medical practice
Personnel Practice
Financial
management
Physician
employment
options
Dealing with
difcult patients
Lean methods
gain efciency
When things go
wrong
Delivering
exceptional
experience
Time
management for
leaders
Physician
leadership/
communication
Inuence Your
culture
Human
trafcking
Leadership Physician Panel Leadership experiences
COO of local
multispecialty
group
3 Tennessee
physicians in solo
DPC practices
Local physician,
member of large
Family Medicine
group
physician
contracting
expertise
Local hospital
physician recruiter
nancial
administrator
MBA (SVMIC) Basics of policies to consistently collect co-pays
administrator
(SVMIC)
Practice
administrator
(SVMIC)
Practice
administrator
(SVMIC)
Practice
administrator
(SVMIC)
Practice
administrator
(SVMIC)
Malpractice
Lawyer (SVMIC)
Practice
administrator
(SVMIC)
Practice
administrator
(SVMIC)
Lawyer (SVMIC) Physicians are leaders
Lawyer (SVMIC) Detecting a practice’s culture
Nurse (SVMIC) The scope of the problem of human trafcking
Benets of large group practice
Negotiating contracts with insurers
Quality-based performance bonuses
Basic DPC model and potential variations
Starting or transitioning to a DPC model
Clinic and nancial benets to patients
Advantages and disadvantages of a large group practice from the physician’s perspective
Capturing bonuses for quality
Leadership opportunities in a large group
Presentation of major areas of physician employment contract
Recommendations for approaching contract negotiations
“Red ags” in contracts offered
Stark laws: what is forbidden and “safe harbors”
Structure of hospital- sponsored salary guarantee
Tips for working with recruiters
Common reasons for insurance denials
Tips to minimize denials
Tips to quickly turn denials around
Common business structures for these contracts
Submission of “clean claims”
Monitoring the nances of a medical practice
Physician roles: both leadership and membership
Resolving problems which can arise
Hiring and retaining good employees
Policies/employment manual/job descriptions
Promoting teamwork
Measures to improve reimbursement
Financial efciency in practice
Approach to physician employment contracts
What to look for in a contract; “red ags”
Areas to negotiate
Four “archetypes” of challenging patients
Recommended approaches to get best results
How to identify waste in processes
Basics of thinking “lean”
Searching for and minimizing waste
Recommendations for managing poor patient outcomes
If Standard of care is not breached
If Standard of care is breached
Measures, both simple and complex, to improve the patient experience
The importance of an exceptional patient experience
Time management for very busy people
Ensuring that priorities are met
Communication methods, and which are best
Changing a suboptimal culture
Recognizing a possible victim of human trafcking
“Horror stories”: personal experiences when things went wrong
M. Bayard and J. Holt
(continued)
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