Практический курс перевода (аннотирование и реферирование). Учебное пособие

ing tiny bubble of space-time could have burgeoned into a massive, busy universe, thanks to inflation. As Krauss puts it, «The laws of physics as we understand them make it eminently plausible that our universe arose from nothing – no space, no time, no particles, nothing that we now know of».

So why did it only happen once? If one space-time bubble popped into existence and inflated to form our universe, what kept other bubbles from doing the same?

There could be a mind-boggling smorgasbord of universes

Linde offers a simple but mind-bending answer. He thinks universes have always been springing into existence, and that this process will continue forever. When a new universe stops inflating, says Linde, it is still surrounded by space that is continuing to inflate. That inflating space can spawn more universes, with yet more inflating space around them. So once inflation starts it should make an endless cascade of universes, which Linde calls eternal inflation. Our universe may be just one grain of sand on an endless beach.

Those universes might be profoundly different to ours. The universe next door might have five dimensions of space rather than the three – length, breadth and height – that ours does. Gravity might be ten times stronger or a thousand times weaker, or not exist at all. Matter might be built out of utterly different particles.

So there could be a mind-boggling smorgasbord of universes. Linde says eternal inflation is not just the ultimate free lunch: it is the only one at which all possible dishes are available. As yet we don't have hard evidence that other universes exist. But either way, these ideas give a whole new meaning to the phrase «Thanks for nothing».

Albert Einstein famously said: “Imagination is more important than knowledge.” They’re both important, says physicist and Nobel Prize recipient Frank Wilczek, but knowledge without imagination is barren. Take his subject of theoretical physics. As Wilczek says a lot of what you do is to try to understand Mother Nature’s mind and her sense of beauty to see how the laws of physics could be more beautiful.

Not many people truly appreciate what happened in physics in the last part of the 20th Century. We understood at a level whose profundity would be difficult to exaggerate what matter is. We really have the equations for the different fundamental building blocks of matter – the

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different particles have mathematical characterisations that are precise and elegant. They have no secrets, in principle we have the equations.

The bad news, however, is we are not so good at solving them. There are still gaps in fundamental understanding, we have very good equations or practical purposes, but they are kind of lop-sided; they are beautiful but not quite as beautiful as they should be given they are close to God’s last word in some sense. We’re trying to think of better ways to solve the equations, which takes a lot of imagination because they describe an unfamiliar world – it’s a very small world and things behave differently in it. The only way to get experience is to play around with the equations and imagine how they might behave in different circumstances, it’s more like imaginative play than anything else.

The laws we have discovered, especially in the quantum world are so strange you have to play with them in your mind. Usually what you envision is wrong, but its mind expanding and every once in a while you see something that may be right. Sometimes it even is right.

The questions we are now able to ask are so compelling, so extraordinary. What is most of the Universe made of? Are the laws of physics ultimately unified? What was the Big Bang like? You just say them and they have such grandeur. The more you learn about the equations, the more you learn about physics, the more you learn how beautiful it is. That’s the real value, it’s an ornament to the human mind.

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10. IRELAND GETS WIND AND WAVE ATLAS

Researchers in the UCD School of Mathematical Sciences, in collaboration with Met Éireann, have created a new wind and wave atlas for Ireland for the period 2000-2012. The study was supported by the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI) through the Renewable Energy Research Development & Demonstration Programme.

Ireland is uniquely placed in terms of its ocean renewable energy resource, with a highly energetic wave and wind climate. The western coast of Ireland possesses one of the best wave energy resources in the world and consequently, is a promising location for the future deployment of wave energy converters.

Quantifying the wave climate and energy resource can aid in the selection of adequate locations for potential deployment and for the planning and design of those marine operations. In addition, up-to-date knowledge of the wind and wave climate of Ireland is very desirable for all marine activities.

Key results:

•The wind energy resource is consistent around the coast with the highest values off the northwest.

•Winter averages for wind power at 100m are generally over 1100Wm-2, spring averages over 800Wm-2, summer over 500Wm-2 and autumn over 900Wm-2, even close to the shore

•In contrast to the wind energy resource, the wave resource is restricted to the Atlantic coast and to a lesser, but still substantial, extent off the Celtic Sea coast. Winter wave energy can reach over 100kWm-1. This drops dramatically to 20kWm-1 in summer.

•Notably, the west and northwest benefit from exceptional levels of wave energy. The mean winter significant wave height can reach over 4m off the western coast.

Wind atlas

The wind atlas was derived by downscaling the ERA-Interim atmospheric re-analysis to a 2.5km horizontal resolution with 65 vertical levels using the mesoscale HARMONIE model, a well-established atmospheric model used by Met Éireann for operational forecasting. Downscaling describes the process of deriving finer resolution data from

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coarser resolution model data. This allows local conditions to be simulated in greater detail. The downscaling area covers all of Ireland and its coastal waters ensuring that physically consistent wind fields are generated for both land and sea areas.

Wave atlas

The wave climate was estimated using the WAVEWATCH III wave model. The resolution of the wave model varied from approximately 10km offshore to a maximum resolution of 250m in the nearshore. In order to provide a realistic description of the nearshore waves, the wave model was driven by the HARMONIE downscaled winds at 10m height, which have sufficient resolution to reflect the small scale orographic features associated with the coastlines and the sheltering effects of bays and islands.

The wave hindcast was also forced at the model grid boundaries by wave directional spectra from the ERA-Interim wave re-analysis. This ensured that realistic ocean swells entered the model domain from the North Atlantic.

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11. MARYLAND UNIVERSITY TO STUDY OFFSHORE WIND IMPACT ON MARINE LIFE

Offshore wind farms will allow renewable energy to be generated with little or no carbon dioxide emissions, but little is known about how they impact the marine species living and migrating along the coast. A new study led by the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science will help State and Federal decision-makers better understand where whales, dolphins and porpoises occur along the coast off of Ocean City, and how they use this habitat.

This information will assist in determining the best way to develop wind farms in order to minimize disruption or harm to marine life in the area.

“Determining patterns of marine mammal occurrence is a critical first step in order to determine any potential effects that offshore wind energy development might have on the behavior and ecology of resident or migratory species,” said the study’s lead scientist Dr. Helen Bailey, who has also studied the impact of wind farm construction noise on marine life off the coast of Scotland.

Offshore wind farms are key to creating a renewable energy mix in Maryland. However, potential negative impacts on marine species could include habitat loss, collision risk, and harmful effects from increased noise and electromagnetic fields.

Beginning this fall, underwater microphones will be affixed on buoys anchored to the ocean floor to continuously record sounds produced by large whales and other marine mammals. This will allow scientists to track their geographic distribution and assess their abundance, and densities along the coast. The study will collect two-years of baseline data that can be used to inform the design of wind farms, how to minimize the impact of construction noise and environmental impacts, and how to facilitate ocean planning in the area.

“A critical element of wind energy planning is developing projects in such a way that we avoid or minimize negative environmental impacts those installations may cause,” said Tom Miller, director of the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science’s Chesapeake Biological Laboratory.“Making these decisions requires a year-round understanding of the species that frequent the area, particularly for protected species that are sensitive to sound, such as marine mammals.”

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The U.S. Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) and the State of Maryland have facilitated the identification of areas on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf that appear most suitable for wind energy activities while minimizing environmental and human user conflicts, including an area of about 94 square miles approximately 10-27 miles from Ocean City, Maryland.

The acoustic monitoring devices will record both ambient and marine mammal sounds from a broad range of sources and species. Large whales tend to vocalize at low frequencies, while dolphins and porpoises produce high-frequency echolocation clicks, as well as a variety of other sounds. These species all produce sounds that are used for critical ecological functions, such as communication, navigation, and finding food. Ambient sound, consisting of both natural and man-made sources, is an important component of marine habitats. It also determines when other sound signals may be detected by marine species, which can affect their ability to communicate and navigate.

Marine mammals are protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act, and those that are known to occur in this region include several large whale species listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act, such as the North Atlantic right whale, fin whale, and humpback whale. There are also minke whales and small cetacean species frequently present, such as bottlenose dolphins, short-beaked common dolphins, and harbor porpoises.

The Maryland Department of Natural Resources secured the funding for this project from the Maryland Energy Administration’s Offshore Wind Development Fund and BOEM.

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12. EVIL SPIRIT? THE LORE AND LURE OF ABSINTHE

In August 1905, Jean Lanfray, a French man working on a vineyard in the Swiss village of Commugny, murdered his wife and their two children. It was believed Lanfray had been under the influence of an evil spirit–absinthe. He had consumed it before killing his family and the village’s mayor determined, “Absinthe is the cause of a series of bloody crimes in our country.” Though the crime was committed in Switzerland, it became international news and panic surrounding the beverage ensued. Three days after he received his sentence to life in prison, Lanfray hung himself. In addition to the death of the Lanfray’s, some see this event as the death of absinthe culture.

According to popular lore, absinthe consumption can lead to hallucinations, madness and epileptic seizures. On this day said to be filled with evil spirits, should absinthe be considered one of them?

Though mainly known as an intoxicant, the use of wormwood (absinthe in French) for medicinal purposes dates back to at least 1550 B.C. Its usage was recorded in the Egyptian medical document known as the Ebers Papyrus, though its usage may go back even further since the papyrus included writings from as far back as 3500 B.C. Wormwood continued to be used medicinally throughout the ages. Hippocrates recommended wormwood extract for rheumatism, menstrual pain, jaundice and anemia. In Historia Naturalis, Pliny the Elder wrote of wormwood’s usage to treat gastrointestinal worms.

As Mary Poppins would advise, a spoonful of sugar helps the medicine go down and with the addition of it, wormwood began shift-

dried wormwood leaves with caraway seeds and dulcifying the mixture with sugar. It wasn’t until the 1790′s that it’s believed the classic recipe was invented by French physician Pierre Ordinaire. Following Ordinaire’s death, Henri-Louis Pernod obtained his recipe and began producing absinthe commercially in 1797 in Pontarlier, France.

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Although it varied by region and maker, there were several characteristics most types of absinthe had in common. It was usually a high-proof distilled alcohol made with oil of wormwood and infused with herbs including green anise, lemon balm, and hyssop. Absinthe also contained thujone, a chemical that was thought to cause hallucinations and also causes absinthe to louche, or become milky when diluted with water.

Several factors contributed to absinthe’s popularity throughout Europe in the late 19th century. When a phylloxera plague in French vineyards caused a large wine shortage, absinthe became an alternative drink. Some of its popularity may partially be attributed to the use of wormwood during the French-Algerian conflict throughout the 1840s. In lieu of quinine, which was said to be too expensive, wormwood was used by French soldiers to combat malaria and also used to treat roundworm and fevers. The soldiers cut its bitterness by mixing it with wine and when they returned to France, they brought back requests for une verte, named so for its distinctive green hue. Soon, 5 p.m. in French cafes became known as l’heure verte, or “the green hour.”

The belief that absinthe had psychedelic properties contributed to its lure amongst the bohemian culture of Parisian artists and writers. Writers including Oscar Wilde often mentioned the drink in their works; Ernest Hemingway didn’t just write a book called “Death in the Afternoon,” he created a cocktail of the same name–a mixture of absinthe and chilled champagne.

Absinthe was also featured in the paintings of several influential artists including Paul Marie Verlaine, Edouard Manet, Edgar Degas, Vincent van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. Pablo Picasso was a casual imbiber, painting both The Absinthe Drinker and The Glass of Absinthe. Later, he sculpted a wax original and six bronze copies of an absinthe glass, spoon.

Not everyone was enamoured with the spirit; some saw it as contributing to the decline of French culture. Amongst those sharing that belief was Valentin Magnan, an influential French psychiatrist. Magnan believed absinthism was distinct from alcoholism and conducted experiments on animals to compare the effects of absinthe with other types of alcohol. In a series of tests, some animals were exposed to pure alcohol while others were exposed to distilled wormwood. According to Magnan, the animals exposed solely to alcohol displayed expected alcohol induced behavior but the ones exposed to distilled

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wormwood had different effects, including hallucinations and seizures. He concluded that absinthism was entirely separate from alcoholism and recommended that it be banned.

Although his studies were subjected to criticism by scientists and journals including The Lancet, an anti-absinthe sentiment was growing throughout Europe. Along with it being perceived to contribute to the decline of French culture, winemakers saw it as competition, Magnan’s distinction between alcoholism and absinthism meant wine could go without blame for the decline of France’s health. Less than a month after the Lanfray murders, it was banned by the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. With the exception of Spain and England, absinthe was banned in most countries by 1915.

Despite the ban, absinthe probably wasn’t the evil spirit it was made out to be. Without strict regulation, some cheaper versions of absinthe may have also been made with adulterants in an effort to have higher profits. Although Lanfray had consumed absinthe the day he murdered his family, he had also ingested seven glasses of wine, six glasses of cognac, a coffee with brandy and two crème de menthes. And some of its most famous imbibers, including van Gogh and Hemingway, also had alcoholic tendencies and may have suffered from other disorders.

In 2008, a research team led by food chemist Dirk W. Lachenmeier conducted a studythat examined the chemical composition of preban absinthe (1895–1910), in comparison to post-ban (1915–88) and modern commercial absinthe (2003–06). As part of the analysis, the researchers looked specifically at levels of thujone. More than just giving absinthe its cloudy appearance, thujone was said to be its active ingredient; in large amounts it can be toxic and can cause kidney failure. The researchers obtained samples from 13 bottles of pre-ban absinthe and used gas chromatography/mass spectrometry to analyze them, then testing the post-ban and modern samples for comparison.

The researchers took several variables into consideration including variations in production, types of herbs, thujone content and also considered the possibility of thujone degradation. Their tests found that the levels of thujone in pre-ban absinthe were not significantly different from those of the post-ban and modern samples. They also found nothing other than ethanol to explain absinthism, suggesting that it was just a form of alcoholism.

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The ban on absinthe has been repealed throughout most of the world, including the US, with the stipulation that absinthe contain less than 10 mg/L of thujone.

Want to dance with the Green Fairy? There’s a traditional ritual to prepare it: first, a jigger of absinthe is poured into a glass, then a cube of sugar is placed on special slotted absinthe spoon and laid on the rim of a glass. Finally, cold water is poured over the sugar, dissolving it and changing the clear green spirit to a milky yellow mixture.

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13.NEW HAWKING FILM BRILLIANTLY DRAMATIZES PARADOX OF MODERN SCIENCE

I met Stephen Hawking in the summer of 1990, when I spent five days in northern Sweden at a conference attended by 30 or so leading cosmologists. He was already almost totally paralyzed; he could move only one finger, with which he controlled a computer and speech synthesizer on his motorized wheelchair.

The new Hawking film shows that this brilliant scientist, whose imagination has plumbed the farthest reaches of reality, is as stumped as the rest of us by mysteries of the heart.

One day, when everyone trooped outdoors for a cocktail party, Hawking’s brassy, red-haired nurse, Elaine Mason, asked me to carry him through a field too rough for the wheelchair.

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