Практический курс перевода (аннотирование и реферирование). Учебное пособие

be better off to go for a walk or listen to music or do anything but watch the television. And I thing if you looked at this and if you look at a weekly television guide, you’d say, ‘Yes, yes fine, I see 15 or 20 or 25 opportunities here, but I don’t have any real choice at all. It’s all pretty much the same stuff. ’ Than, of course, the networks of those programs would say, ‘You are being too much demanding.’ This is after all a mass medium and you may have highly advanced tastes. ’ I don’t really. I like police dramas a lot, but I can’t always find them when I want them. So the argument here is that this compulsion to do the least objectionable, the least risk in fact leads to a rather mediocre, rather bland diet of the kinds of programs that you would see listed here. In attempting to stay with programming that has the broadest mass appeal they obviously will take programs which are pretty safe. And they will take programs which aren’t very controversial, and they will do programs which have obvious large audience appeal.

Now in programming I think it is reasonable to say that the great bulk of it is designed for mass entertainment, as opposed to news, information, education, instruction. I think if you counted up the hours here and you looked at a week’s worth you’d say, “This is clearly an entertainmentoriented medium”. Now, what is the nature of this entertainment, of all the possible formats that we produce, of the western, the action drama and the variety show and this kind of things. This so-called situation comedy is by far the most popular format that you would see here and also over a long period of time. When people are asked in various kinds of surveys what have been their favourite programs from 1950 on invariably 50 percent, 60 percent, 70 percent of that would identify the so-called situation comedy, that is to say a situation which is artificially contrived and created each week with a cast of characters that essentially remains the same. People come in and out. And that’s really, not only this season, but over a long period of time probably the predominant format in this entertainment programming.

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7. THE ORIGIN OF POLAR BEARS

Polar bears are such massive, popular and iconic animals that you'd think we'd have long understood whence they came. However, establishing the origin of polar bears has proved difficult.

We've struggled to reveal when they became the instantly recognisable white bear we know today, and still know relatively little about what happens when polar bears and their darker-coloured cousins come together, and perhaps even mate.

A captive polar bear

It has been long known that polar bears are indeed bears, belonging to the Ursids, the family of mammals that include brown and black bears, as well as others such as sloth and spectacled bears.

That may seem obvious. But there was, until quite recently, a longstanding confusion around the origin and relationship of one the polar bear's closest cousins; the panda, with scientists debating whether that species was a true bear at all, until genetic studies confirmed it was.

It has been difficult to determine the origins of polar bears in part because few preserved ancient polar bear remains have been discovered. So, scientists have turned to studying the genetics of bears to establish when they diverged from each other.

One study published in 2013 suggests that pandas split from the bears anything from 8 to 38 million years ago. It took time to work out that panda bears are... bears.

Black and brown bears then split into unique lineages between 1.5 and 6.5 million years ago.

And polar bears diverged from brown bears between 130,000 and 650,000 years ago, with the general consensus that they first appeared

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in the Pleistocene, and must be at least 115,000 years, the date of the oldest known polar bear fossil.

However, that is not the end of the story. Discrete populations of polar bears are thought to have mated and bred with populations of brown bears since.

Now-extinct brown bears that once lived in Ireland, for example, had polar bear ancestry, perhaps because past changes in the distribution of polar ice, for example, stranded polar bears or hybrids on the island.

Brown bears living on islands off the coast of Alaska also appear to have polar bear ancestry.

Brown bears are polar bears' closest relatives

A study published in 2014 also found tantalising genetic evidence that bears living in the Himalaya mountains, a vast distance from the Arctic, may have derived from polar bears. This unique heritage could have produced bears that look and behave slightly different from the brown bears that usually live in the region, albeit at lower altitudes. And these odd, high-altitude bears may be the origin of the Yeti legend, speculate the scientists who conducted the study.

A meeting of bears

What happens when white and brown bears come together is difficult to answer, as it occurs rarely.

Polar bears do come ashore in summer, and in some regions of the Canadian Arctic brown bears have been observed wandering around on the pack ice. But generally, they live in separate habitats, and there are few recorded instances of polar bears and brown bears mating.

However, that may happen more often if the sea ice in the polar bear's natural habitat melts, forcing more bears ashore and for longer periods.

So far, there is just a single hybrid polar and brown bear known from the wild. In April 2006 a strange-looking bear was shot by a hunter in Nelson Head, on the southern part of Banks Island in the southern Canadian archipelago. A study of its genes revealed it to be a brown-polar bear-hybrid.

Hybrid bears have a blend of characteristics

Precisely 17 more are known from zoos, the result of bears born to polar bears and brown bears kept together in enclosures, which subsequently mated. And scientists have studied these hybrid bears' features.

They found that polar-brown bear hybrids inherited traits from both parents. Hybrids have visible tails, like polar bears, whereas those

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of brown bears are barely apparent. They have longer necks more typical of polar bears, but also display small shoulder humps reminiscent of brown bears.

They also inherited blended traits. For example, in terms of overall size, they fall between the larger polar bear and smaller brown bear. The size and shape of their heads is intermediate between the thickerset brown bear and more slender-headed polar bear.

The bears' feet are also an intriguing blend. The soles of the hybrids' feet are partially covered in hair. Polar bear feet are covered in hair to insulate them from the ice, whereas brown bears have hairless soles and clearly visible toes. Polar bears have unique paws. But most intriguing is the bears' hair.

When viewed as a cross section, the shaft of a brown bear's hair is either solid or full of small hollow regions, depending on where the hair is on the bear's body.

The hair of a polar bear is almost completely hollow, with large empty regions within its core. The hybrids' hair was partially hollow.

Behaviourally, the two hybrids have much in common with polar bears.

The existence of these bears proves that polar bears and brown bears in close proximity can and do mate.

What is more, as well as having a combination of features, they are also fertile.

The odds of it occurring may be low, but it raises the possibility that, in a future, warmer world with less sea ice, polar and brown bear may yet consistently breed.

That may either create a new hybrid species, or polar bears and brown bears may merge once more, repairing the split that led to the origin of polar bears in the first place.

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8. TESTES 'MOST DISTINCT HUMAN TISSUE'

The tests have been identified as the most distinct type of human tissue by the Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden. The team have detailed which proteins are active in which tissues of the human body. It shows the testes needed the most distinct suite of proteins to function.

The Human Protein Atlas has been described as a «really important foundation» for scientific research that could help develop new drugs. Human DNA contains the instructions for building about 20,000 proteins – the little bits of biological machinery that run our body.

The combination of proteins active in a cell decides its function – a cell for filtering the blood in the kidney works differently to a neuron in the brain.

Scientists have now pieced together which proteins function where and hope the findings could have important implications for medicine. «Surprisingly for us, there is altogether very little proteins which are enriched in the different parts of the human body and almost half of the 20,000 genes are coding for proteins which are expressed in all cells and tissues of the body, «Prof Mathias Uhlen, the project leader, said.

These are described as «housekeeping» proteins necessary to keep every cell functioning. But 999 proteins were significantly more active in testicular tissue than anywhere else in the body.

Some proteins are more active in testicular tissue than elsewhere in the body. The cerebral cortex of the brain had 318, the liver 172 and smooth muscle zero. Prof Uhlen told the BBC News website: «If you're interested in the brain or neurological disorders or even degenerative diseases like Alzheimer's obviously it is interesting to know which proteins are elevated in the brain».

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He speculated the testes were unique because of the complicated method of producing sperm, which need to have half as much DNA as a normal cell. «Also there are about 600 proteins which are targets for all the pharmaceutical drugs, so you can say where are these targets located in the human body because that gives you indications about side effects».

Antibodies

The team used antibodies designed to latch on to different proteins. They then exposed 32 types of tissue – representing all the major organs and tissues in the body – to the antibodies to see which ones stuck and therefore which proteins were active.

The team aim to develop a «pathology atlas» that will show what goes wrong during disease and which proteins are involved. Dr Ewan Birney, the associate director of the EMBL-European Bioinformatics Institute, said the project would complement the rapid advances in understanding DNA. He told the BBC: «It's looking great – it's going to be a really important foundational resource on top of the bedrock of the Human Genome Project. It is going to accelerate both basic and clinical research. It's much closer to the action than genomes. About half of proteins we're really head-scratching about what they do... [now there are] proteins we know exist, we know they do something, but now we know where to look».

He argued the testes had more distinctive proteins because of their focus on producing large numbers of sperm without any errors in their genetic code. Mutations in a normal cell may eventually lead to cancer. However, a mutation in sperm could stop it being able to fertilise an egg, he said. Meanwhile, the unique brain proteins may be down to a «sheer logistics problem» involved in operating really long nerve cells stretching across the brain, he argued.

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9. WHY IS THERE SOMETHING?

Some physicists think they can explain why the universe first formed. If they are right, our entire cosmos may have sprung out of nothing at all

People have wrestled with the mystery of why the universe exists for thousands of years. Pretty much every ancient culture came up with its own creation story – most of them leaving the matter in the hands of the gods – and philosophers have written reams on the subject. But science has had little to say about this ultimate question.

However, in recent years a few physicists and cosmologists have started to tackle it. They point out that we now have an understanding of the history of the universe, and of the physical laws that describe how it works. That information, they say, should give us a clue about how and why the cosmos exists.

Their admittedly controversial answer is that the entire universe, from the fireball of the Big Bang to the star-studded cosmos we now inhabit, popped into existence from nothing at all. It had to happen, they say, because «nothing» is inherently unstable.

This idea may sound bizarre, or just another fanciful creation story. But the physicists argue that it follows naturally from science's two most powerful and successful theories: quantum mechanics and general relativity. Here, then, is how everything could have come from nothing.

Particles from empty space

First we have to take a look at the realm of quantum mechanics. This is the branch of physics that deals with very small things: atoms and even tinier particles. It is an immensely successful theory, and it underpins most modern electronic gadgets.

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Quantum mechanics tells us that there is no such thing as empty space. Even the most perfect vacuum is actually filled by a roiling cloud of particles and antiparticles, which flare into existence and almost instantaneously fade back into nothingness. These so-called virtual particles don't last long enough to be observed directly, but we know they exist by their effects.

Space-time, from no space and no time

From tiny things like atoms, to really big things like galaxies. Our best theory for describing such large-scale structures is general relativity, Albert Einstein's crowning achievement, which sets out how space, time and gravity work.

Relativity is very different from quantum mechanics, and so far nobody has been able to combine the two seamlessly. However, some theorists have been able to bring the two theories to bear on particular problems by using carefully chosen approximations. For instance, this approach was used by Stephen Hawking at the University of Cambridge to describe black holes.

In quantum physics, if something is not forbidden, it necessarily happens

One thing they have found is that, when quantum theory is applied to space at the smallest possible scale, space itself becomes unstable. Rather than remaining perfectly smooth and continuous, space and time destabilize, churning and frothing into a foam of space-time bubbles.

In other words, little bubbles of space and time can form spontaneously. «If space and time are quantized, they can fluctuate,» says Lawrence Krauss at Arizona State University in Tempe. «So you can create virtual space-times just as you can create virtual particles.»

What's more, if it's possible for these bubbles to form, you can guarantee that they will. «In quantum physics, if something is not forbidden, it necessarily happens with some non-zero probability,» says Alexander Vilenkin of Tufts University in Boston, Massachusetts.

A universe from a bubble

So it's not just particles and antiparticles that can snap in and out of nothingness: bubbles of space-time can do the same. Still, it seems like a big leap from an infinitesimal space-time bubble to a massive universe that hosts 100 billion galaxies. Surely, even if a bubble formed, it would be doomed to disappear again in the blink of an eye?

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If all the galaxies are flying apart, they must once have been close together

Actually, it is possible for the bubble to survive. But for that we need another trick: cosmic inflation. Most physicists now think that the universe began with the Big Bang. At first all the matter and energy in the universe was crammed together in one unimaginably small dot, and this exploded. This follows from the discovery, in the early 20th century, that the universe is expanding. If all the galaxies are flying apart, they must once have been close together.

Inflation theory proposes that in the immediate aftermath of the Big Bang, the universe expanded much faster than it did later. This seemingly outlandish notion was put forward in the 1980s by Alan Guth at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and refined by Andrei Linde, now at Stanford University.

As weird as it seems, inflation fits the facts

The idea is that, a fraction of a second after the Big Bang, the quantum-sized bubble of space expanded stupendously fast. In an incredibly brief moment, it went from being smaller than the nucleus of an atom to the size of a grain of sand. When the expansion finally slowed, the force field that had powered it was transformed into the matter and energy that fill the universe today. Guth calls inflation «the ultimate free lunch».

As weird as it seems, inflation fits the facts rather well. In particular, it neatly explains why the cosmic microwave background, the faint remnant of radiation left over from the Big Bang, is almost perfectly uniform across the sky. If the universe had not expanded so rapidly, we would expect the radiation to be patchier than it is.

The universe is flat and why that's important

Inflation also gave cosmologists the measuring tool they needed to determine the underlying geometry of the universe. It turns out this is also crucial for understanding how the cosmos came from nothing.

Einstein's theory of general relativity tells us that the space-time we live in could take three different forms. It could be as flat as a table top. It could curve back on itself like the surface of a sphere, in which case if you travel far enough in the same direction you would end up back where you started. Alternatively, space-time could curve outward like a saddle. So which is it?

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There is a way to tell. You might remember from maths class that the three angles of a triangle add up to exactly 180 degrees. Actually your teachers left out a crucial point: this is only true on a flat surface. If you draw a triangle on the surface of a balloon, its three angles will add up to more than 180 degrees. Alternatively, if you draw a triangle on a surface that curves outward like a saddle, its angles will add up to less than 180 degrees.

So to find out if the universe is flat, we need to measure the angles of a really big triangle. That's where inflation comes in. It determined the average size of the warmer and cooler patches in the cosmic microwave background. Those patches were measured in 2003, and that gave astronomers a selection of triangles. As a result, we know that on the largest observable scale our universe is flat. It turns out that a flat universe is crucial. That's because only a flat universe is likely to have come from nothing.

Everything that exists, from stars and galaxies to the light we see them by, must have sprung from somewhere. We already know that particles spring into existence at the quantum level, so we might expect the universe to contain a few odds and ends. But it takes a huge amount of energy to make all those stars and planets.

The energy of matter is exactly balanced by the energy of the gravity the mass creates

Where did the universe get all this energy? Bizarrely, it may not have had to get any. That's because every object in the universe creates gravity, pulling other objects toward it. This balances the energy needed to create the matter in the first place.

It's a bit like an old-fashioned measuring scale. You can put a heavy weight on one side, so long as it is balanced by an equal weight on the other. In the case of the universe, the matter goes on one side of the scale, and has to be balanced by gravity.

Physicists have calculated that in a flat universe the energy of matter is exactly balanced by the energy of the gravity the mass creates. But this is only true in a flat universe. If the universe had been curved, the two sums would not cancel out.

Universe or multiverse?

At this point, making a universe looks almost easy. Quantum mechanics tells us that «nothing» is inherently unstable, so the initial leap from nothing to something may have been inevitable. Then the result-

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