4.1Introduction

gathered from 28 steel plants from across Europe and Asia (excluding China and former USSR countries), North America, and South America. The steel power plants from the Mittal Steel Group were not included in the study (Arcelor Group was not part of Mittal Steel Group at the time). This is one of the reasons why this monograph discusses the LCA method so extensively (see Sects. 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3). The analysis introduced in this chapter is supported by a presentation of the life cycle of the process in the form of process trees, presented as boxes; each element of the tree includes a piece of information regarding the involvement of the processes and materials, proportionate to the value of indicators. In addition, it is possible not only to determine which process/material has the greatest influence on the product, but also to describe the involvement of a single element in the entire life cycle.

4.2Origin and Development of the LCA Method

Life Cycle Analysis is an environmental management technique, which has very wide application (Kulczycka and Henclik 2009). It is a relatively new (Kowalski et al. 2007) and developing (Finnveden et al. 2009) environmental management technique described in international ISO standards, which has been developing since the mid-1980s. As is demonstrated by Kulczycka (2009), the first research in the area of LCA application in the study of machines and devices, conducted in Poland (since 1986), was undertaken by Prof. Zbigniew Kłos (1990) at Poznan´ University of Technology, resulting in the publication of the first book in 1990 and the first doctoral thesis about LCA (in Poland and in the former people’s democracy countries), defended by Grzegorz Laskowski in 1999 (Kłos 2000). More information regarding the application of the LCA method in Poland can be found in other publications (Kłos and Kurczewski 2007; Merkisz et al. 2007).

A definition of Life Cycle Analysis, provided by Kulczycka and Henclik (2009), and based on the official definition given by the European Commission, states that it is a “process of collection and assessment of not only the input and output data of the manufactured product, but also of the potential impact on the environment in its entire life cycle (production, usage, and utilisation)”. In accordance with the recommendations described in the standards, the assessment using the LCA technique can be carried out by identifying and determining the amount of materials and energy used, as well as the amount of waste discharged into the environment, and then by evaluating the impact of these processes on the environment and interpreting the obtained results. It is vital to establish the aim and scope of the analysis, the functional unit, and its boundary system.

LCA is an effective tool used in the evaluation of current technology, and it can be employed in, for instance, the decision-making processes in the introduction of new technology solutions, and in modernisation or liquidation of processes, among others. The LCA method can be applied in individual production or service

facilities (irrespective of their size) and in all types of industries (extractive, food, waste management, etc.).

In the work of Assies (1991), Vignon et al. (1993), Pedersen (1993), Boustead (1992) as well as Castells et al. (1997), one can come across general descriptions of the origin of the LCA technique. According to Vignon et al. (1993), the LCA method was first introduced by Harold Smith who, in 1969, presented the results of his research at the World Energy Conference. His research, carried out in 1969, was on the calculation of energy demand in chemical industry manufacturing public-use products (Sonneman et al. 2004). The complete theoretical bases of the LCA method were formed at a conference in Vermont. It was then that the name Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was introduced (Kulczycka 2001). After the conference in Vermont the interest surrounding LCA issues began to grow. As a result of the efforts to standardise the Ecological Life Cycle Assessment technique (LCA), the ISO 14040–14044 standards, describing the issues connected to LCA, were introduced in the ISO 14000 series. In recent years, governments of different countries have begun to implement programmes where the solutions to certain undertakings are based on the application of the LCA method. In Japan a 5-year programme has been developed, entitled: the Development of Assessment Technology of Life Cycle Environment Impact of Products and so Forth (Itsuba and Inaba 2003). In Netherlands, the programme has involved waste management, with special emphasis on sewage-treatment plants (Bieda 2007b).

In the European Union membership countries, more and more companies use or introduce an integrated management system, known as Environmental Management System (EMS). This norm aims at ensuring the general effectiveness of the system – not necessarily in all areas of environmental activity, but in accordance with the ecological policies of a company, which is dealt with by Subcommittee 1 (BizanGatys 1997; Kowalski et al. 2007). As far as the standardisation in the field of Ecological Life Cycle Assessment is concerned, however, Subcommittee 5 – Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) deals with it. The principles and framework of the LCA technique are thoroughly explained and provided in the following standards: ISO 14040 (1997), ISO 14041 (1998), ISO 14042 (2000), ISO 14043 (2000) (Kulczycka 2001). In accordance with the recommendations described in the standards, the assessment using the LCA technique can be carried out by identifying and determining the amount of materials and energy used, as well as the amount of waste discharged into the environment, and then by evaluating the impact of these processes on the environment and interpreting the obtained results. It is vital to establish the aim and scope of the analysis, the functional unit, and its boundary system.

LCA is an effective tool used in the evaluation of current technology, and it can be employed in, for instance, the decision-making processes in the introduction of new technology solutions, and in modernisation or liquidation of processes, among others. The LCA method can be applied in individual production or service facilities (irrespective of their size) and in all types of industries (extractive, food, waste management, etc. – see Bieda 2004b, 2006d).

Fig. 4.1 Definition of ecological life cycle assessment (Source: Kulczycka (2001))

4.3Defining the LCA Method

The definition of Ecological Life Cycle Assessment is shown in Fig. 4.1 (Kulczycka 2001).

The application of the Ecological Life Cycle Assessment technique is carried out in four distinct stages (PN-EN ISO 14040, 2009; PN-EN ISO 14041, 2002; PN-EN ISO 14042, 2002; PN-EN ISO 14043, 2002):

1.The goal and scope of study (ISO 14040)

•Setting out the aims of the study

•The choice of the functional unit

•The setting of the system boundaries

•The database of quality requirements

2.Life Cycle Inventory – LCI (ISO 14041)

•Creation of the life cycle flow chart

•The database – data on inputs and outputs

•Catalogue construction – the sum of individual functional units

•The analysis of input and output data

3.Life Cycle Impact Assessment – LCIA (ISO 14042)

•Selection of impact categories

•The classification stage – the definition of catalogue elements that have an impact on the environment

•Characterisation – defining their impact on the environment

•Measurement – assigning the significance of each impact category