Irregular Plurals

a man – men a woman – women

a tooth – teeth a foot – feet

a goose – geese a mouse – mice

a child – children an ox – oxen

a deer – deer a sheep – sheep

a fish – fish a louse – lice

Countable and uncountable with different meanings

stuff/materials uncountable	things countable
glass cloth fish e.g. We had fish for dinner work drink paper hair e.g. She has beautiful hair. home iron	a glass a cloth a fish e.g. He caught a big fish today. a work a drink a paper a hair e.g. There’s a hair in my soup. a home e.g. Her grandmother lives in a home (institution). an iron
experience e.g. You need experience for this job (knowledge).	experience e.g. We had many interesting experiences during our holiday (things that happened to us)
coffee/tea potato chocolate e.g. Would you like some chocolate? Salt and pepper	a coffee and two teas potatoes e.g. Just two potatoes, please. a chocolate e.g. Would you like a chocolate? a pepper

Omission of the noun after’s

Omit the noun after ’s when referring to work, places, shops, and houses.

e.g. the doctor ‘s rather than the doctor ‘s surgery

my mother ‘s rather than my mother ‘s house

Compound adjectives

(combination of numbers with nouns)

A noun used as an adjective doesn’t have plural.

age volume length price weight area duration depth time/distance

a three-year old house a two-litre car a ten-inch ruler a seventy-dollar suit a three-kilo dag of carrots a forty-acre farm a two-hour meeting a six-foot hole a ten-minute walk

Articles

Use of a/an

A/an is used before singular countable nouns.

1. e.g. He is a Ukrainian.

He is a Christian .

He is a Conservative.

t o be + a/an He’s a Lytvyn.

It’s a Rembrandt.

It’s a Dickens novel

2. a/an + jobs

e.g. He works as a doctor

3. in the meaning of any

e.g. Give me a chair (Дай мені (будь-який)стілець).

4. in the meaning of one

e.g. A hundred.

I’d like a coffee (“one cup of coffee”).

5. When a person or thing is introduced for the first time.

e.g. I watched a man. The man looked like an actor.

t here + a/an

e.g. There is a book on the desk.

What (in exclamatory sentences) Such Quite rather

+ a/an

e.g. She is still quite a child.

8. a/an +adjective + noun

e.g. She is a +nice + girl.

9. p rice/weight

e.g. 50 hryvnyas a kilo

d istance/fuel

e .g. 8 km a litre +a/an

Distance/speed

e.g. 60 km an hour

Frequency/time

e.g. twice a day

Use of the

The is used both with singular and plural nouns to refer to something that is known.

1. When it’s clear which thing or person we mean.

e.g. Give me the chair. (Дай мені (цей)стілець.)

2. the +superlative + noun

e.g. She is the most beautiful girl in my class.

3. The + things that are unique

e.g. the sun, the sky, etc.

4. The + adjective

e.g. The young should respect the old.

5. The + nationality (when you mean the people of that country)

e.g. The English drink a lot of tea.

The French are famous for their food.

6. The … +of

e.g. the Europe of the Middle Ages;

the door of the room;

the Statue of Liberty;

the Bank of Scotland.

7. The + ordinal numeral

e.g. He is in the first form.

8. The + the name which denotes the whole family

e.g. The Ivanovs lived in Kharkiv.

9. The + names that include: union, republic, states, kingdom

e.g. the United States – Сполучені Штати

the United Kindom - Сполучене Королівствою

10. The + plural names

e.g. the Netherlands – Нідерланди

the Philippines – Філіппіни.

11. The + rivers, seas, oceans, lakes; mountain ranges

e.g. the Pacific Ocean

the Biack Sea

the Suez Channel –

the Thames (or the River Thames)

the Baikal (but: Lake Baikal)

the Alps

Theatres, cinemas, art galleries, clubs, museums, hotels, concert halls

the +

e.g. the Shevchenko Drama Theatre

the National Gallery

the British Museum

the Plaza Hotel

13. restaurants, pubs, cafes

    the +

e.g. the Rock Café

the Red Lion (pub)

14. names of newspapers

    the +

e.g. the Times

the Washingtjn Post

Remember!

Zero article +	streets, roads, squares, parks; individual mountains; airports, stations, languages, transport, sports, natural phenomena, meals	e.g. Оxford Street Trafalgar Square Hyde Park Mount Everest by train / car / dus / texibasketball fog for breakfast / lunch
	collective nouns	e.g. luggage furniture jewellery rubbish cutlery machinery etc.

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Subject pronouns		Object pronouns
singular	plural	singular	plural
I You He She it	We You they	Me You Him Her it	Us You them

Compare:

Did anyone tell (whom?) the boss or them? (object)

It was (who?) Tony and she (subject) who told (whom?) us (object) about thet

Remember!

They often use object pronouns:

1. after be

e.g. Who is it?- It’s me/him/her/us/them (informal).

2. in answer to questions with who?

e.g. Who told him? – Me/Not me (informal)

or I did/ I didn’t (formal).

3. after as and then

e.g. He’s taller than me/He is as tall as me (informal)

or He’s taller than I am/He is tall as I am (formal)

Compare:

Ted cares for her as much as I. (Ted cares for her as much as I cares for her )	Ted cares for her as much as me. (Ted cares for her as much as he cares for her me )
These sentences are both correct because they have two different meanings. So decide which meaning you want. Then choose either I or me.

Possessives

Possessive adjectives (followed by nouns)	Possessive pronouns (not followed by nouns)
my your his her its our your their	mine yours him hers - ours yours theirs

Reflexive Pronouns

singular	plural
myself yourself himself herself itself	ourselves yourselves themselves

Reflexive Pronouns are used:

1. after behave, bur, cut, hurt, enjoy, dry, laugh at, look etc. when the subject and object of verb are the same.

e.g. Did you hurt yourself?

but: not after wash, shave, dress etc.

2. after be, look, seem to descry

e.g. She doesn’t look herself these days.

but: I feel fine.

3. in the meaning without help.

e.g. He painted the house himself (without help).

4. for emphasis.

e.g. You yourself said that she was a great writer.

Some, Any

some	any
1.Affirmatives: e.g. I want some tomatoes. There is some bread on the table.	1.Questions: e.g. Is there any meat in the fridge?
2.Offers and requests: e.g. May I have some tea? Would you like some tea? Do you want some tomatoes?	2.Negatives: e.g. I don’t want any tomatoes.
	3.With hardly, without, never: There’s hardly any mil. O found a taxi without any trouble.
	4.Affirmatives: In the meaning it doesn’t matter who, what, which or if any exists. e.g. Any news you have could be useful.
	5.In conditionals: e.g. If any news comes, let me know.

One, ones

One	ones
1.Is used to avoid repeating the noun: e.g. Don’t use that cloth. Use this clean one.	1.Is used to avoid repeating a plural countable noun: e.g. Here are your books. These are the ones you paid for.
2.is used for people as well as things. e.g. Do you know Tom? – Is he the one who came yesterday?	2.is used for people as well as things. e.g. Do you know those guys? –Are they the ones we met yesterday?
3.don’t use one in place of uncountable noun. Repeat the noun or use no noun at all. e.g. Don’t eat that butter. Eat this fresh butter. Or Eat this fresh.	3.don’t use ones after these/those. e.g. I want these.
4.use one after This/that + adjective e.g. I want this+ red + one.	4.use one after These/those + adjective e.g. I want these+ red + ones.
5.one may be omitted: a) after superlative b) in short answers. e.g. Which one would you like? – The green/ The green one	5.ones may be omitted: a) after superlative b) in short answers. e.g. Which socks would you like? – The longest/ The longest ones.

Agreement of Subjects and Verbs

singular	anybody, anyone, each, either, everybody, everyone, neither, nobody, no one, one, somebody, someone.
	e.g. Everyone in this room is my friend.
plural	both, few, many, several.
	e.g. Many of the students want longer holidays.
singular/plural	all, any, most, none, some.
	Most of the money has been spent. Most of the students are hand-working.

Agreement of Pronoun with Antecedent

Note: Every day brings its charm (day – antecedent of its).

Ann visited her (Ann – antecedent of her).

1. If two or more singular antecedents are joined by or, not, either/or, or neither/nor, use a singular pronoun to refer to them.

e.g. Either Tom or Rosa should read her story.

Either the girls or the boys should read their books.

2. If two or more singular antecedents are joined by and or both/and, use a plural pronoum to refer to them.

e.g. Both Tom and Rosa volunteered their help.

3. If you don’t know the gender then use his or his or her.

e.g. Each winner received his prize.

or Each winner received his or her prize.

or just use the plural form

e.g. All winners received their prizes.

5. a) Singular Indefinite Pronouns

anybody either neither one anyone everybody nobody somebody each everyone no one someone

e.g One of the girls left her book on the desk.

Neither of the men can loan you his car.

If gender is not indicated use his or his or her.

e.g. Everybody must bring his own tennis racket.

or Everybody must bring his or her own tennis racket

b)

Plural Indefinite Pronouns

both few many several

e.g. Few of my acquaintances have their own cars.

Several of the tourists lost their way.

c)

Singular or Plural Indefinite Pronouns

all any most none some

Compare and remember!

a number – означає декілька, якась (велика чи мала) кількість; синонім до слів several, a few. e.g. There are a number of pages missing in the book. – В книжці не вистачає декілька сторінок.

the number – означає загальну кількість. e.g. The number of students attending concerts is increasing. – Кількість студентів, які відвідують концерти зростає.

Adjectives and Adverbs

Compare: a djective(adj) adverb(adv)
1. beautiful slow	1. beaautifuly slowly
2. is used a ) before noun a) after verb e.g. She is a beautiful woman. e.g. She dresses beatufily.
b) after the verbs: be, look, appear, seem, feel, taste, smell, sound. e.g. She seems confident.
3. exeption a ) good a) well e.g. He is a good swimmer. e.g. He swims well.
4. exeption b ) fast b) fast e.g. It’s a fast car. e.g The car goes fast. hard hard e.g. It’s a hard work. e.g. He worked hard. early/late early/late e.g. I was late. e.g. I came late.
5.exeption c ) friendly, lovely, lonely, silly, ugly c)in a e.g. He is a friendly guy. friendly, lovely, lonely, silly, etc way/manner/fashion e.g. He smiled in a friendly way (or manner, or fashion).
6.exeption d) adjective can be used after the to refer to a group of people in general e.g. the rich, the poor, the young, the elderly, the strong etc. e.g.We should have more respect for the elderly.

Adverbs which have different meanings

Compare:
deep = a long way down e.g. He dived deep into the lake.	deeply = greatly e.g. He is deeply respected.
free = without payment e.g. Pensioners travel free on trains.	free = willingly e.g. He freely admitted to being a good swimmer.
hard = with a lot of effort e.g. He worked hard.	hardly = scarcely (ледве) e.g. He hardly played at all.
late = after the arranged time e.g. He arrived late.	lately = recently e.g. I haven’t seen him lately.
high = to/at a high level e.g The plane flew high in the sky.	highly = very much e.g. She is a highly respected woman.

Position of Adverbs

1. verb + adverb

e.g. He drives carefully.

2. verb + direct object what? +adverb

e.g. I read the letter attentively.

4. adverb of manner How? + adverb of place Where? + adverb of time When?(Обставина, що вказує більш точний час, стоїть перед обставиною, що вказує час у загальному плані e.g. at 5 o’clock yesterday .)

e.g. He worked hard at school yesterday.

But: When there is a verb of movement then:

place + manner + time

e.g. She goes to work on foot every day.

5. a) no longer + verb

e.g. He no longer lives here.

But: to be auxiliary verb + no longer

e.g. My father is no longer a pilot.

b) beginning of the sentence + any more any longer

e.g. He does not live here any more/any longer.

6. beginning of the sentence + daily, weekly, monthly, early

e.g. The mail is delivered here daily.

7. Probably, certainly, obviously, possibly + not

e.g. I probably won’t go to Poltava.

e.g. I’ii probably not go to Poltava.

Order of Frequency Adverbs

Hardly ever occasionally often nearly always

N ot ever/never seldom/rarely sometimes very often/ frequently always

Generally usually/normally

1. Subject + adverb + verb

e.g. I often go on a business trip.

We never see them nowadays.

He hardly ever eats ice cream.

2. To be first auxiliary verb modal verb + adverb

e.g. I have sometimes seen them in here.

I can often see them.

The room has never been cleaned.

Still, yet, already

1. Still already+ verb

e.g. He still behaves like a child.

I already know that.

2. To be auxiliary verb modal verb + still already

e.g. He is still asleep.

She is already here.

3. The beginning of sentence + already for special emphasis

e.g. I’ve seen the film already.

Have you done that already?

4. Subject + still + not for special emphasis

e.g. They still haven’t paid it.

I still don’t understand him.

5. A) the beginning of question + yet (вже)

e.g. Have you done that yet?

2. The beginning of negative sentence +yet (ще)

e.g. He hasn’t answered my letter yet.

Such, so

Such	so
1. such + (adjective)+noun e.g. She is such a (nice) woman.	1. so + adjective e.g. She is so nice. He was so great a success.
2. such + a lot (of) e.g. I’ve got such a lot to do today. But: To talk about similarity use like this/that e.g. I'd love to have a car like that (Not: such a car).	2. so + many/much e.g. I've got so much to do to­day.
	3. so + adverb e.g. He works so slowly.