Environmental Biotechnology - Jordening and Winter
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252 8 Principles of Anaerobic Degradation of Organic Compounds
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9
Soil Remediation and Disposal
Michael Koning, Karsten Hupe, and Rainer Stegmann
9.1 Introduction
For the treatment of contaminated sites, securing as well as remediation methods are applied. While remediation achieves decontamination or reduction of pollutants, securing sets up technical barriers for the protection of the environment. Since the source of contamination remains in place and the technical barriers are subject to aging and environmental influences, securing measures often represent only a time restricted solution and future remediation activities become necessary.
Remediation methods are classified according to their operation location as well as to processing aspects. Thus, ex situ and in situ processes are available on the one hand, and thermal, chemical, physical, and biological processes on the other. The ex situ processes require excavation of the contaminated soil and soil treatment either at the site (on-site remediation) or at an external soil treatment plant (off-site remediation). In contrast, in situ treatment takes place at the site in the contaminated soil itself, without any soil excavation.
Thermal processes are used for the treatment of highly concentrated organic pollutants, but they are suitable only to a small extent for the elimination of heavy metals. With soil scrubbing, the coarse-grain fraction >63 µm is purified, transferring the pollutants into the water phase and/or into the fine-grain fraction. This fine fraction is highly loaded with pollutants and thus has to be treated and disposed of afterwards. The biopile process is applied on a large scale as a state-of-the-art technology. It is an effective process for the treatment of biologically degradable pollutants such as mineral oil and its derivatives, aliphatic hydrocarbons, phenols, formaldehyde, and other soil contaminants.
In remediation practice, there is a trend toward actions with a minimum of requirements. Contaminated sites are remediated or secured, depending on the intended after-use, e.g., housing, development of commercial or industrial facilities, or as recreational areas. Depending on the kind of use, specific target values have to be met after treatment. If the contaminated site is not being used and so far no major dangerous contamination of the groundwater, surface water, etc. has occurred,
Environmental Biotechnology. Concepts and Applications. Edited by H.-J. Jördening and J. Winter Copyright © 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
ISBN: 3-527-30585-8
260 9 Soil Remediation and Disposal
one relies more and more on natural attenuation processes in soil and groundwater. Economical active (e.g., selective biostimulation) and passive in situ measures (reactive walls, funnel and gate systems) are developed and need to be investigated with regard to their long-term effectiveness.
For the ex situ remediation of soils that are nearly not amenable to treatment (silty soils contaminated with chlorinated hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or tar oil) combined processes with soil scrubbing as basic process are increasingly being considered. For the subsequent treatment of problematic polluted residues (fine-grain fraction, process waters, etc.), a variety of processes are available, e.g., suspension bioreactors, oxidation with ozone or H2O2, and thermal treatment.
Experiences in dealing with hazardous old sites have basically shown that balancing pre-investigations are of essential importance regarding the process evolution as well as the evaluation of remediation measures. Far-reaching investigations have been carried out in the field of microbiological (ex situ) treatment, and standardizations have been defined (Dechema, 1992; GDCh, 1996). In the future, emphasis should be placed on process evaluation for the in situ treatment so as to predict the processes of natural attenuation by balancing as far as possible the fate of pollutants.
9.2
Thermal Processes
Thermal soil purification is based mainly on transfer of the pollutants from the soil matrix into the gas phase by thermal energy input. The pollutants are released from the soil by vaporization and then burned. The polluted gas is purified further.
The different processing concepts for the thermal purification of contaminated soils are characterized by variations of the process parameters (e.g., temperature range, retention time for solids and waste gas in certain temperature zones, supply of oxygen, supply of reactive gases for gasification, supply of inert gas, kind of heat input, and optimum heat utilization, etc.). The large variability has led to a multitude of ex situ and in situ process combinations.
9.2.1
Thermal Ex Situ Processes
The basic principle of a thermal soil purification plant includes the following processing steps (Figure 9.1):
1.soil conditioning
2.thermal treatment
3.waste gas purification
In soil conditioning, the contaminated soil is freed of interfering foreign matter (e.g., scrap, plastics) broken, sieved, and homogenized by mechanical preparation processes to be of a particle size consistent with the technical requirements of the subsequent thermal treatment [<20 mm (fluidized bed) to 80 mm]. During thermal
9.2 Thermal Processes 261
Fig. 9.1 The thermal ex situ treatment process.
treatment the soil is heated so that volatile pollutants are stripped from it. In the gas phase above the soil, the combustion of pollutants takes place, but in this phase complete destruction of volatile pollutants cannot be achieved. For this reason the gases are burned in an afterburner chamber at high temperature (~1200 °C) for a certain retention time. Under these conditions dioxins are also destroyed.
Two different technologies are mainly used in thermal soil treatment:
•processes with an exclusively thermal effect: directly and indirectly heated processes (pyrolysis) with subsequent gas treatment (afterburning, condensation) (rarely used)
•processes with a thermal effect and additional measures (common practice)
Processes having an exclusively thermal effect (directly and indirectly heated) are conventional processes available on a large scale, using, e.g., rotary kiln plants, fluid- ized-bed plants, and sintering strand plants, for which long-term experience in practice has been achieved. Most of the processes work in the low-temperature range of 100 to 550 °C (residence time of the soil in the furnace 10–20 min; throughput 20 to 30 Mg (megagramms) h–1 (VDI, 2002)) at which the structure of the soil is not fundamentally changed and humic components are only partly destroyed. In the early days of thermal soil treatment, high-temperature processes were practiced in which the soil was heated to temperatures of 800 to 1100 °C (residence time of the soil in the furnace 20–45 min; throughput 2 to 7 Mg h–1 (VDI, 2002)). Under these conditions, partial liquefying or sintering of the soil particles is possible. At the same
262 9 Soil Remediation and Disposal
time, the organic components and the clay minerals of the soil are destroyed to a large extent, hydroxides are changed into oxides, and primary minerals are crushed by gritting. Furthermore, the quantity of NOx increases rapidly at temperatures >1000 °C, so that special equipment could be necessary for decreasing NOx in the waste gas.
Depending on the contents of pollutant, water, and fine soil particles, thermal treatment with indirect heating is carried out under reducing conditions (pyrolysis) in a temperature range between 400 and 600 °C (residence time of the soil in the furnace approx. 45 min; throughput 5 to 13 Mg h–1 (VDI, 2002)).
The processes using an exclusively thermal effect show significant differences regarding the waste gas purification systems used. The selection of the waste gas purification system used, is decisive influenced by the local regulations on air emissions. Usually, aggregates are used, which are normally used for flue gas purification in large-scale power plants and in waste incineration plants. The waste gas purification equipment in these processes mainly contains three partial units:
1.high-temperature afterburners
2.dedusters
3.flue gas purifiers
The separation of fine soil particles from the gas stream (dedusting) is done by means of cyclones, hot gas filters, or combinations of different filter techniques specifically adapted to the process. Although the organic pollutants (hydrocarbons) are completely oxidized during the afterburning step (high temperature afterburning) at 900–1300 °C, flue gas purification minimizes the amounts of inorganic pollutants such as hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, and sulfur dioxide and brings the levels of dust and heavy metal emissions down to target values. Fundamentally, flue gas purification processes can be divided into a dry sorption process, a wet cleaning process (wet scrubbers), and a combination of both (semidry process). If reduction of nitrogen oxides is required, special measures are necessary. The efficiency of the various processes increases from the dry sorption through the semidry up to the wet scrubber process – as do the total costs. But at the same time, the degree of pollutant separation effected by these processes increases so that – especially regarding the wet cleaning processes – high waste gas quality requirements can be met. To guarantee the target values of the waste gas, activated carbon filters are used as a final step in almost all processes. An operation without excess water can be achieved by treatment of the washing water (heavy metal precipitation and stabilization) and subsequent recirculation for semidry and wet cleansing processes (Fortmann and Jahns, 1996).
Processes involving thermal effects and additional measures include various designs that use a temperature range of 60–350 °C, at which the pollutants (especially low-boiling and medium-boiling hydrocarbons) are stripped from the soil by the influence of heat and additional measures (e.g., steam stripping, vacuum). The efficiency of the process depends not only on the effect of the temperature, but also on the physical properties of the pollutants.