Indirect Speech

When a declarative sentence is changed from direct into indirect speech, it becomes an object clause introduced by the conjunction that which is often omitted. Personal and possessive pronouns are shifted or remain unchanged according to the sense. The most common verbs in both direct and indirect speech are say, tell and ask.

He said (that)/told me (that) he didn’t have much time.

She asked me if/whether I wanted anything.

• If the reporting verb denotes a past action, tenses of the verb of the direct speech are changed according to the rules of the sequence of tenses.

Direct Speech		Indirect Speech
Present Indefinite	→ → → → →	Past Indefinite
Present Continuous		Past Continuous
Present Perfect		Past Perfect
Past Indefinite		Past Perfect
Future Indefinite		Future Indefinite in the Past

Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
He said, “It’s great.”	He said it was great.
“I’m leaving.”	She said she was leaving.
“I made it.”	He said that he had made it.
He said to her, “I’ve never lied.”	He told her he had never lied.
“I’ll see it some other time.”	She said she would see if some other time.

• It is often necessary to make time and place changes in relation to tense changes.

Examples of possible changes:

time	ago	→	before
	next week	→	the next week
	now	→	immediately/then
	two days ago	→	two days before/earlier
	today	→	that day
	tonight	→	that night
	tomorrow	→	the next/the following day
	the day after tomorrow	→	two days later
	yesterday	→	the previous day/the day before
	the day after tomorrow	→	two days before
	last night	→	the night before
place	here	→	there when what is referred to is clear
	this place	→	that place
	these places	→	those places
verbs	come/bring	→	go/take

• When instructions, commands, requests and invitations are changed into indirect speech, the Imperative Mood is replaced by the infinitive. Indirect commands, requests, etc. are normally expressed by tell, order, ask, beg, advise, remind, warn, etc. with a person addressed and the infinitive.

Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
“Come early,” he said.	He said to come early.
“Don’t go.”	He told her not to go.

• In indirect Yes/No questions there is no inversion, the subject comes before the verb, the same as in the statement. Because of the statement word order do, does, or did are not used to form indirect questions. If and whether are interchangeable after ask, want to know, wonder, etc. but whether conveys slightly greater doubt. Whether is always preferable when there are alternatives.

Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
“Will you have tea or coffee?” she asked.	She asked me whether I wanted tea or coffee.

Some verbs, like discuss can only be followed by whether. If or whether must always be used when reporting Yes/No questions and cannot be omitted (unlike that in reported statements).

Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
“Is it still raining?” Tom asked.	Tom asked if/whether it was still raining.

• In indirect wh- questions the subject also comes before the verb as in the statements, and do, does, or did are not used.

Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
“Why did you leave your job?” he said.	He asked me why I had left my job.

Unit 11

Modal verbs

The verbs can, may, must, ought, shall, should, will, would, need and dare form a special class of verbs which are called modal verbs. They are used with the infinitive of another verb. They denote neither actions nor states; they show that the action or state denoted by the infinitive is considered as possible, obligatory, necessary, desirable. probable, doubtful, allowed, advisable, etc.

Modal verbs have certain peculiarities:

1. they have no infinitive, no gerund and no participles; accordingly they have no future tense, no continuous and perfect tenses.

2. they (except ought and partly need and dare) are followed by the infinitive without the particle to.

3. they have no ending -(e)s in the third person singular of the present tense.

4. In the interrogative form modal verbs are placed before the subject. In the negative form the particle not is used after the modal verb.

The length of primary education can vary from four to seven years. Can the length of primary education vary from four to seven years? The length of primary education can not vary from four to seven years.

Can

The verb can has two forms: the present tense (can) and the past tense (could).

It has the following meanings:

1. Physical or mental ability, capability. In this meaning can occurs in all kinds of sentences

He can read English. Can he read English? He cannot read English.

This meanings can also be expressed by to be able to which has all tenses. In everyday speech can is more common than be able to in the present tense.

She can do computer graphics. She is able to do computer graphics.

When we speak about a specific achievement or a single event in the past was/were able to is used.

He was able to win the Math Prize last year.

2. Possibility depending on circumstances.

He can get the book from the library tomorrow.

This meaning is occasionally expressed by to be able to which is usually found in such cases with reference to the future or past.

He will be able to get the book from the library tomorrow.

He was able to get the book from the library yesterday.

3. Permission. Could in this mean­ing is used only in interrogative sentences to express a polite request, the word please is often used. Can or may are used in answers.

You can use my books. You can't use my pen. Could I take your book, please?

Yes, you can. No, you may not.

4. Doubt, uncertainty.

In this meaning can is used only in inter­rogative sentences

Can she be travelling by train now? Can he know German?

5. Improbability.

In these meanings the verb can is used only in inter­rogative sentences

It can’t be true.

May

The verb may has two forms: the present tense (may) and the past tense (might). It has the following meanings:

1. Supposition implying uncertainty. This meaning is also rendered in English by means of words perhaps and maybe. In this meaning the verb may is used in affirmative and negative sentences with all forms of the infinitive.

He may be at home. He may not be at home.

2. Possibility depending on circumstances. In this meaning may is used only in affirmative sentences

You may go there by train.

When might is followed by the Perfect Infinitive it shows that the action was not carried out.

І might have stayed at home.

3. Permission. In this meaning the verb may is a little more formal than can and could.

May I use your phone?

This meaning may also be rendered by to be allowed and to be permitted .

I got a visa so I was allowed to cross the frontier.

4. Reproach, disapproval. In this meaning only might is used.

You might have written me a little something, anyhow.

Unit 12

Must

The verb must has only one form. It is used in present-time contexts with reference to the present or future and in combination with the perfect infinitive it refers to the past. In past-time contexts this form is used only in reported speech (the rules of the sequence of tenses are not used with must).

Не said that she must consult a doctor.

The verb must has the following meanings:

1. Obligation, duty, necessity. In these meanings must is used in affirmative and interrogative sentences with the Indefinite Infinitive.

You must go there at once.

The meaning of obligation and necessity may also be rendered by to be obliged and to have to.

He is obliged to go there. He has to go there at once.

2. Prohibition. In this meaning must is used in negat­ive sentences and is followed by the Indefinite Infinitive.

You must not talk aloud in the reading room.

3. Order or advice. In these meanings must is used with the Indefinite Infinitive in affirmative and negative sentences

Tomorrow you must come to school at eight.

4. Supposition implying assurance. In this meaning must is used with all forms of the infinitive but only in affirmative sentences The Continuous Infinitive refers to the present.

They must be surround­ing the house.

The Perfect Infinitive refers to the past. The Indefinite Infinitive is used with reference to the present if the verb has no Continuous form.

She must have caught cold.

Have to

Have to as a modal verb is not a detective verb and can have all the necessary tense forms as well as non-finite forms. The interroga­tive and negative forms of the modal verb have to in the Present Indefinite and in the Past Indefinite are formed by means of the auxiliary verb to do.

He had to go there at once. Did he have to do it? He didn’t have to go there yesterday.

The verb have to serves to express obli­gation or necessity depending on circumstances.

І have to get up the next morning at seven. I had to sell most of my things. You’ll have to go hоmе now.

Be to

Be to as a modal verb is used in two ten­ses: the Present Indefinite and the Past Indefinite.

He is to come at five. Не was to come at five.

The present tense of be to can be followed only by the Indefinite Infinitive. The Perfect Infinitive can be used with the past tense of be to to show that the action was not carried out.

He was to have come at five.

The modal verb be to has the following meanings:

1. Obligation resulting from a previous agreement, plan, schedule, timetable, etc.

We were to work two hours every morning. We are to meet at the the­atre.

2. Order or instruction.

You are to go to sleep. You're not to come here any more. The medicine is to be kept in a cool dark place.

3. Possibility. In this case be to is mostly used with the Passive Infinitive.

He was not to be found.

Need

It can be used both as a modal and as a notional verb. As a modal verb need forms its interrogative and negative forms without the verb to do and is followed by the infinitive without the particle to.

The verb need expresses necessity. It is used in negative and interrogative sentences and when reference is made to the present or future is followed by the indefinite infinitive.

You needn’t go there. Need I repeat it?

In interrogative sentences need usually implies that there is no necessity of performing the action in question.

In negative sentences it is not always the verb need that is in negative form; the negation may be found elsewhere in the sentence.

I don’t think we need continue the conversation. I need hardly point it put to you.

The Perfect Infinitive used with the verb need shows that an unnecessary action has been performed.

You needn't have done this exercise in written form.

Unit 13

Ought to, Should

The modal verbs ought to and should have only one form which is used with reference to the present or future and it remains unchanged in reported speech.

The verbs ought to and should have almost the same modal meanings:

1. moral obligation, advisability, desirability.

You ought to help your friend. Ought she to help him? He oughtn’t to do it.

You should do it yourself. Should he help them? He shouldn’t go it.

In combination with the perfect infinitive ought shows that a desirable action:

was not fulfilled in the affirmative sentence;

You ought to have told me about it. You should have told me about it.

was fulfilled in the negative sentences

You ought not to have mentioned it. You should not have mentioned it.

2. supposition implying strong probability.

Ought and should in this meaning are generally used in affirmative sentences with the indefinite infinitive.

The book ought to be interesting. The book should be interesting.

The use of ought and should in this case does not seem to be very common as this meaning is normally rendered by must.

Shall

The modal verb shall is used with the Indefinite Infinitive which denotes an action referring to the future.

In affirmative and negative sentences the modal verb shall is used in the second and third persons to express an order, warning, threat, promise.

You shall go into the dining room first. You shall not do that again.

In interrogative sentences the modal verb shall is used in the first and third persons to get an order or instruction from the person addressed.

Shall I come to see you there? Shall I turn on the lights for you?

Will, Would

The principal meaning of the modal verbs will and would is that of will, intention, determination. In this meaning will and would are used with the first person in affirmative and negative sentences

We will help you. I won't go there.

In interrogative sentences will and would are used to express a polite request.

Will you have a cup of tea? Won't you sit down? Would you help me?

If will and would used in negative sentences refer to lifeless things, they show that the thing fails to perform its function.

The knife won't cut. The window wouldn't open.

Will and would as modal verbs can be used in adver­bial clauses of condition.

If you will allow me, I will see you home.

Dare

The verb dare may be used as a regular and a modal verb. As a modal verb it has two forms which are the present and the past tense forms.

The modal verb dare has the following meanings:

1. Courage to do something.

Dare he swim across the river? He dared not look at her.

2. Impudence to do something.

How dare you say it?

Its use is very restricted. It is used mostly in questions beginning with “how” and in negative sentences

TESTS

TEST 1