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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Odoh, Uchenna E., editor. | Gurav, Shailendra S., editor. |

Onyegbulam, Chukwuma M., editor.

Title: Pharmacognosy and phytochemistry / [edited by] Uchenna E. Odoh,

University of Nigeria, Shailendra S. Gurav, Goa University, Chukwuma M. Onyegbulam, University of Nigeria.

Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley, [2025] | Includes bibliographical

references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2024046668 | ISBN 9781394203659 (hardback) | ISBN

9781394203673 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781394203666 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Materia medica, Vegetable. | Botanical chemistry. Classification: LCC RS164 .P495 2025 | DDC 615.3/21–dc23/eng/20250107 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024046668

Cover Design: Wiley Cover Image: © ARTFULLY PHOTOGRAPHER/Shutterstock

List of Contributors xvii Preface xxi

1 Historical Overview of Pharmacognosy and

Phytochemistry 1

Mona M. Marzouk, Mai M. Farid, Rana M. Merghany, Shahira M. Ezzat

1.1 Introduction to Pharmacognosy 1

1.2 Historical Development of Pharmacognosy 1

1.2.1 Mesopotamia Region 2

1.2.2 China 2

1.2.3 India 2

1.2.4 Ancient Egypt 2

1.2.5 The Greeks 2

1.2.6 Arabic and Islamic Region 2

1.3 Development of Pharmacognosy in the Modern Era 3

1.4 The Relevance of Pharmacognosy in Pharmacological Research on Herbal Medicinal Products 3

1.5 Taxonomy and Botanical Authenticity 3

1.5.1 Plant Identification 4

1.5.2 Plant Nomenclature 4

1.5.3 Plant Classification 4

1.6 Phytochemistry – An Expanded Role in Traditional Medicine (History and Progress in Drug Discovery) 6

1.7 Recent Progress in Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 7

1.7.1 Bioactivity-guided Fractionation 8

1.7.2 Identification of Bioactive Compounds from Adulterants 8

1.7.3 Omics Approach 11

1.7.4 Phytopharmacology and Mechanistic Studies 11

1.7.5 Multitargeted Approaches 11

1.7.6 Bioavailability and Drug Delivery Systems 12

1.7.7 Computational Approaches 12

1.7.8 Standardization and Quality Control 12

1.7.9 Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods 13

1.7.10 Sustainability and Conservation 13

1.7.11 Microbial Interactions and Co-cultivation 13

1.7.12 Biotechnological Approaches 13

1.7.13 Green Extraction Technology 13

1.7.14 Big Data and Artificial Intelligence 13

1.8 Conclusion 14 References 14

2 Classification of Crude Drugs of Natural

Origin 17

Vishal S. Bagul, Piyush S. Bafna, Deepak M. Patil, Rakesh E. Mutha

2.1 Introduction 17

2.1.1 Definition of Crude Drugs 17

2.1.2 Importance of Classification of Crude Drugs 17

2.1.3 Early Attempts at Classification of Crude Drugs 18

2.2 Botanical Classification 18

2.2.1 Division Based on Plant Families 18

2.2.2 Importance of Taxonomy in Identifying and Categorizing Crude Drugs 19

2.2.3 Examples of Common Plant Families and Their Medicinal Representatives 19

2.3 Morphological Classification 19

2.3.1 Division Based on Plant Parts Used for Medicinal Purposes 20

2.3.1.1 Leaves 20

2.3.1.2 Roots 20

2.3.1.3 Stems 20

2.3.1.4 Bark 20

2.3.1.5 Flowers 20

2.3.1.6 Fruits 20

2.3.1.7 Seeds 21

2.3.2 Examination of Macroscopic and Microscopic Characteristics for Identification 21

vi Contents

2.3.3 Importance of Organoleptic Properties in Morphological Classification 21

2.4 Chemical Classification 21

2.4.1 Division Based on the Primary Active Chemical Constituents and Major Classes 21

2.4.1.1 Alkaloids 22

2.4.1.2 Glycosides 22

2.4.1.3 Volatile oils/terpenoids 22

2.4.1.4 Phenolic compounds 23

2.5 Pharmacological Classification 23

2.5.1 Division Based on the Therapeutic Actions and Properties 23

2.5.2 Relationship Between Pharmacological Activities and Chemical Constituents 24

2.6 Taxonomical Classification 25

2.6.1 Plant-Based Crude Drugs 25

2.6.2 Animal-Based Crude Drugs 25

2.6.3 Mineral-Based Crude Drugs 25

2.7 Chemotaxonomical Classification 25

2.7.1 Understanding of Chemotaxonomy 25

2.7.2 Chemotaxonomical Classes of Crude Drugs 26

2.7.2.1 Alkaloids 26

2.7.2.2 Flavonoids 26

2.7.2.3 Terpenoids 26

2.7.2.4 Phenolic Compounds 26

2.7.2.5 Glucosinolates 26

2.8 Geographical Classification 26

2.8.1 Division Based on the Geographic Origin of Crude Drugs 26

2.8.1.1 Tropical Drugs 26

2.8.1.2 Temperate Drugs 27

2.8.1.3 Arctic and Alpine Drugs 27

2.8.1.4 African Drugs 27

2.8.2 Influence of Climate, Soil, and Environmental Factors on Medicinal Properties 27

2.8.3 Examples of Region-specific Crude Drugs and Their Uses 27

2.9 Traditional and Cultural Classification 28

2.9.1 Division Based on Traditional Medicine Systems 28

2.9.2 Preservation of Traditional Knowledge in Classifying Crude Drugs 28

2.10 Modern Analytical Techniques in Classification 29

2.10.1 Use of Advanced Analytical Methods 29

2.10.1.1 Infrared Spectroscopy 29

2.10.1.2 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry 29

2.10.1.3 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry 30

2.10.1.4 Chromatography Techniques 30

2.10.2 Role of DNA Barcoding in Accurate Identification and Classification 31

2.10.3 Advantages and Challenges of Modern Techniques 31

2.11 Challenges in Classification 32

2.11.1 Overlapping Chemical Constituents in Different Classes 32

2.11.1.1 Polyploidy and Hybridization 32

2.11.1.2 Rapid Evolution and Speciation 32

2.11.1.3 Taxonomic Bias and Expertise 32

2.11.2 Ethical Considerations in Classifying Endangered Plant Species 32

2.11.2.1 Data Accessibility and Accuracy 32

2.11.2.2 Taxonomic Uncertainties 32

2.11.2.3 Inadequate Resources for Research 33

2.11.2.4 Conservation Prioritization 33

2.11.2.5 Ex Situ Conservation and Access to Genetic Resources 33

2.11.2.6 Cultural and Traditional Knowledge 33

2.12 Future Perspectives 33

2.12.1 Integration of Traditional and Modern Classification Approaches for Crude Drugs 33

2.12.1.1 Incorporating Traditional Classification Systems 33

2.12.1.2 Analyzing Chemical Composition and Pharmacology 33

2.12.1.3 Bridging the Gap 33

2.12.1.4 Safety and Regulation 33

2.12.1.5 Research and Innovation 34

2.12.1.6 Holistic Patient Care 34

2.12.2 Role of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning 34

2.12.2.1 Data Analysis and Pattern Recognition 34

2.12.2.2 Predictive Modeling 34

2.12.2.3 Drug–Drug Interactions and Safety 34

2.12.2.4 Quality Control 34

2.12.2.5 Data Integration and Literature Mining 34

2.12.3 Emerging Trends and Innovations in the Field 34

2.13 Conclusion 35

2.13.1 Recapitulation of the Significance of Classification in Understanding Crude drugs 35

2.13.2 Importance of Accurate Classification of Crude Drugs for Safe and Effective Use in Medicine 36

2.13.3 Call to Further Research and Collaboration in Advancing Crude Drug Classification 36 References 37

Contents vii

3 Folk Medicine as a Source of Therapeutically

Important Drugs: Evidence from Ethnobotanical Investigations 43

Moses Sam Arul Raj, Mohan Kalaskar, Shailendra Gurav, Muniappan Ayyanar

3.1 Introduction 43

3.1.1 Market Potential of Herbal Medicines 43

3.1.2 Early Records of Folk Medicine 44

3.1.3 Origin and Definition of Ethnobotany 44

3.1.4 History of Ethnobotany 45

3.1.5 Subdisciplines of Ethnobotany 45

3.2 Traditional Medical Systems 46

3.2.1 African Traditional Medicine 46

3.2.2 American Traditional Medicine (North, Central, and South) 46

3.2.3 Australian and Southeast Asian Medicine 47

3.2.4 Ayurvedic Medicine (Indian Traditional Medicine) 47

3.2.5 Chinese Traditional Medicine 47

3.2.6 European Medicine 47

3.2.7 Classical Arabic, North African Traditional Medicine 47

3.3 Importance of Ethnobotanical Research in Drug Discovery 48

3.4 Biological Activity of Medicinal Plants 49

3.4.1 Anticancer Activity 49

3.4.2 Antidiabetic Activity 57

3.4.3 Gastrointestinal Disorders 57

3.4.4 Respiratory Disorders 58

3.4.5 Antiviral Activity 58

3.4.6 Anti-inflammatory Activity 58

3.5 Conclusions 59 Acknowledgments 59 References 59

4 Complementary and Alternative Medicinal

Systems 67

Akshay M. Baheti, Arti G. Swami, Manasi R. Nimbalkar, Ranjit Nimbalkar, Anil T. Pawar

4.1 Introduction 67

4.2 Ayurveda System 67

4.2.1 History of Ayurveda 67

4.2.2 Principles of Ayurveda 68

4.2.2.1 Panchamahabhuta Siddhanta 68

4.2.2.2 Tridosha 68

4.2.2.3 Dhatus 69

4.2.2.4 Upadhatus 69

4.2.2.5 Malas 69

4.2.2.6 Srotas 69

4.2.2.7 Agni 69

4.2.2.8 Prakriti 69

4.2.3 Ayurvedic Methods of Diagnosis 69

4.2.3.1 Ayurvedic Treatment 70

4.2.5 Ayurvedic Formulations 71

4.3 Unani System 72

4.3.1 History of Unani System 72

4.3.2 Principles of Unani 72

4.3.3 Methods of Diagnosis 73

4.3.4 Treatment 74

4.3.4.1 Ilaj-Bil-Tadbeer (Regimental Therapy) 74

4.3.4.2 Ilaj-Bil-Dawa (Pharmacotherapy) 74

4.3.4.3 Ilaj-Bil-Yad (Surgical therapy) 74

4.3.5 Unani Formulations 74

4.4 Siddha System 75

4.4.1 History 75

4.4.2 Principles of Siddha 75

4.4.2.1 Five Elements 75

4.4.2.2 Seven Physical Constituents 76

4.4.2.3 Humours (Uyir Thathukkal) 76

4.4.2.4 Vaatham (Vali) 76

4.4.2.5 Pitham (Azhal) 77

4.4.2.6 Kapham (Aiyaam) 77

4.4.3 Methods of Diagnosis 77

4.4.3.1 Physical Examination of Urine 77

4.4.3.2 Pulse 78

4.4.3.3 Wrist Circumferential Sign 78

4.4.4 Treatment 78

4.4.5 Siddha Formulations 78

4.5 Homeopathy System 79

4.5.1 History 79

4.5.2 Principles of Homeopathy 79

4.5.3 Methods of Diagnosis and Treatment 80

4.6 Conclusion 80 References 80

5 Cultivation, Collection, and Preparation of

Plant Drugs 83

Mohan Kalaskar, Muniappan Ayyanar, Nilambari Gurav, Sanjay J. Surana

5.1 History 83

5.2 Cultivation 83

5.2.1 Need of Medicinal Plants Cultivation 84

5.2.2 Limitation of Cultivation 84

5.2.3 Types of Cultivations 84

5.2.3.1 Sexual Propagation 84

5.2.3.2 Asexual Propagation 85

5.3 Factors Affecting Cultivation 85

5.3.1 Soil 85

5.3.2 Altitude, Temperature, and Humidity 85

5.3.3 Rainfall and Irrigation 86

5.3.4 Fertilizers and Manures in Plant Nutrition 87

5.3.5 Pests and Pest Control 87

viii Contents

5.3.6 Pest Control 87

5.3.6.1 Natural Method 87

5.3.6.2 Mechanical Method 88

5.3.6.3 Agricultural Method 88

5.3.6.4 Chemical Methods 88

5.3.6.5 Biological Method 88

5.4 Good Agricultural Practice 88

5.4.1 Objectives 89

5.4.2 Identification/Authentication of Cultivated Medicinal Plants 89

5.4.2.1 Medicinal Plants Selection 89

5.4.2.2 Botanical Identity 89

5.4.2.3 Specimens 89

5.4.3 Seeds and Other Propagation Materials 89

5.4.4 Site Selection 89

5.4.5 Soil 90

5.4.6 Fertilizers and Manures 90

5.4.7 Climate 90

5.4.8 Irrigation and Drainage 90

5.4.9 Plant Maintenance and Protection 90

5.4.10 Harvest 90

5.5 Good Collection Practices for Medicinal Plants 91

5.5.1 Collection Permissions 91

5.5.2 Technical Planning 91

5.5.3 Social and Ecological Impact 92

5.5.4 Selection of Medicinal Plants for Collection 92

5.6 Processing of Medicinal Plants 92

5.6.1 Primary Processing 92

5.6.2 Secondary Processing 93

5.6.2.1 Cutting/sectioning 93

5.6.2.2 Aging/sweating 93

5.6.2.3 Baking/roasting 93

5.6.2.4 Boiling/steaming 93

5.6.2.5 Stir-frying 93

5.7 Storage and Packaging 93

5.8 Sample Record for Cultivated Medicinal Plants 94

5.9 Voluntary Certification Scheme for Medicinal Plant Produce in Indian Scenario 97

5.9.1 Certification Process: For individual farmer/ collector 97 References 99

6 Adulteration and Evaluation of Crude Drugs

of Natural Origin 101

Popat Mohite, Abhijeet Puri

6.1 Introduction 101

6.2 Adulteration of Herbal Drugs 102

6.2.1 Poisonous or Deleterious Substances 102

6.2.1.1 Types of Poisonous or Deleterious Adulterants 102

6.2.2 Filth and Foreign Matter of Adulteration 102

6.2.2.1 Types and Examples 102

6.2.3 Microbiological Contamination 103

6.2.3.1 Examples of Microbiological Contamination 103

6.3 Types of Adulteration 103

6.3.1 Intentional/Deliberate Adulteration 103

6.3.2 Unknown or Incidental Adulteration 104

6.3.3 Metallic Contamination 105

6.3.4 Adulteration in Synthetic and Artificial Substances 105

6.4 Adulteration in Medicinal Plants 106

6.4.1 Reasons for Adulteration 106

6.4.2 Adulteration Caused Because of the Similar Morphology 106

6.4.3 Adulteration Caused Because of Confusion in Vernacular Names 106

6.4.4 Insufficient Basic Understanding of the Real Plant Source 107

6.5 Methods of Detection of Adulterants and Evaluation of Medicinal Herbs 107

6.5.1 Taxonomic Deciding Adulteration of Medicinal Plants 107

6.5.2 Morphological Analysis 108

6.5.3 Microscopic Analysis 108

6.5.4 Organoleptic Analysis 109

6.5.5 Qualitative and Quantitative of Phytochemical for Detection of Contaminants 109

6.5.6 Establishment of Fingerprint Profiles 109

6.5.7 Multiple Marker-based Fingerprint Profiles for Detection of Adulterants 110

6.6 Analytical Techniques in the Detection and Evaluation of Adulterants 111

6.6.1 Microscopy 111

6.6.2 Chromatographic Techniques 111

6.6.2.1 Thin-layer Chromatography 111

6.6.2.2 High-performance Liquid Chromatography 112

6.6.2.3 Gas Chromatography 113

6.6.3 Hyphenated Techniques 113

6.6.3.1 Gas Chromatography-mass Spectrometry 113

6.6.3.2 Liquid Chromatography-mass Spectrometry 114

6.6.4 Spectroscopic Methods 114

6.6.4.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 114

6.6.4.2 Mass Spectrometry 114

6.7 Challenges in Detection of Adulterants 115

6.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 115 References 115

Contents ix

7 Methods of Extraction 121

Mohan Kalaskar, Santosh U. Yele, Muniappan Ayyanar, Nilambari Gurav, Vishal Beldar, Sanjay J. Surana

7.1 Introduction 121

7.2 Ideal Properties of Solvent 122

7.3 Solvents for Extraction 123

7.4 Factor Affecting Extraction Methods 124

7.5 Mechanism of Extraction 124

7.6 Methods of Extraction 125

7.6.1 Decoction 125

7.6.2 Maceration 126

7.6.2.1 Modified Macerations 126

7.6.3 Percolation 126

7.6.3.1 Imbibition 127

7.6.3.2 Maceration 127

7.6.3.3 Percolation 127

7.6.4 Soxhlation (Hot Continuous Percolation) 128

7.6.5 Extraction of Essential Oil Techniques 129

7.6.5.1 Distillation 129

7.6.5.2 Expression 130

7.6.5.3 Ecuelle 130

7.6.5.4 Enfleurage 131

7.6.5.5 Hot Maceration Process/Digestion 131

7.6.5.6 Pneumatic Method 132

7.6.6 Phytonics 132

7.6.7 Pressurized Liquid Extraction/Accelerated Solvent Extraction 133

7.6.8 Pulsed Electric Field Extraction 134

7.6.9 Ultrasound-assisted Extraction 135

7.6.10 Microwave-assisted Extraction 136

7.6.11 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 138 References 139

8 Qualitative and Quantitative Methods of

Phytochemical Analysis 143

Mughisha Nagori, Devyani Rajput, Gajendra Choudhary, Rakhi Khabiya

8.1 Introduction 143

8.2 Phytochemical Screening Through Chemical Test 144

8.2.1 Alkaloids 145

8.2.2 Glycosides 146

8.2.3 Flavanoids 147

8.2.4 Tannins 148

8.2.5 Saponins 148

8.2.6 Terpenoids 149

8.2.7 Carbohydrates 149

8.2.8 Lipids 149

8.2.9 Protiens 150

8.3 Quantitative Methods of Phytochemical Analysis 150

8.3.1 Determination of total phenolic content 150

8.3.1.1 Folin-Ciocalteu Method 151

8.3.2 Determination of Total Flavonoid Content 151

8.3.2.1 Determination of Tannins 152

8.3.2.2 Estimation of Total Tannin Content 152

8.3.2.3 Determination of Total Alkaloid 153

8.3.2.4 Determination of Carbohydrates 153

8.3.2.5 Determination of Protein 154

8.3.3 Analytical Parameters for Fixed Oils and Waxes 155

8.4 Analytical Techniques In Phytochemical Analysis 156

8.5 Conclusion 159 References 160

9 Modern Analytical Techniques for Quality

Control and Chemical Identification of Phytochemicals 167

Rakesh E. Mutha, Mohan Kalaskar, Zamir G. Khan

9.1 Introduction 167

9.1.1 Background and Significance of Phytochemicals 167

9.1.2 Importance of Quality Control and Chemical Identification 168

9.1.3 Overview of Modern Analytical Techniques 168

9.2 Chromatographic Techniques 169

9.2.1 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 169

9.2.2 Gas Chromatography 171

9.2.3 Thin-layer Chromatography and High-performance Thin-layer Chromatography 173

9.3 Spectroscopic Techniques 175

9.3.1 Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy 175

9.3.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 177

9.3.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 177

9.4 Mass Spectrometry 179

9.4.1 Structural Elucidation of Phytochemicals by Mass Spectrometry 179

9.4.2 Quantitative Analysis and Quality Control Measures 179

9.4.2.1 Quantitative Analysis for Phytochemicals 179

9.4.2.2 Quality Control Measures for Phytochemicals 180

9.5 Hyphenated Techniques 180

9.5.1 LC-MS and GC-MS Applications in Phytochemical Analysis 180

x Contents

9.5.2 LC-NMR-MS for Comprehensive Structural Elucidation 181

9.6 Chemometric Tools and Data Analysis 181

9.6.1 Multivariate Analysis Techniques and Quality Control and Pattern Recognition Methods 181

9.7 Advanced Technologies 182

9.7.1 Metabolomics in Phytochemical Analysis and Molecular Imaging Techniques 182

9.8 Challenges and Future Perspectives 182

9.8.1 Current Challenges in Phytochemical Analysis 182

9.8.2 Future Directions and Emerging Technologies 183

9.9 Conclusion 183 References 184

10 Classification and Therapeutic Applications

of Plant Secondary Metabolites 189

Amna Javed, Muhammad Saad Hashmi, Uzma Javaid, Rahima Amjad

10.1 Introduction 189

10.1.1 Types of PSMs 189

10.1.2 Functions of PSMs 189

10.2 Classification of PSMs 190

10.2.1 Alkaloids 190

10.2.2 Terpenoids 190

10.2.3 Phenolic Compounds 191

10.2.4 Glycosides 192

10.2.5 Tannins 193

10.2.6 Saponins 193

10.3 Biosynthetic Pathways 194

10.4 Environmental Factors Affecting PSMs 194

10.5 Genetic Factors Affecting PSMs 195

10.6 Role of Enzymes in Plant Secondary Metabolite Production 195

10.7 PSMs Therapeutic Applications 196

10.7.1 Antimicrobial Properties 196

10.7.2 Anticancer Potential 197

10.7.3 Anti-inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Effects 197

10.7.4 Neuroprotective and Cognitive Benefits 198

10.7.5 Cardiovascular Health Benefits 199

10.7.6 Antioxidant and Antiaging Effects 200

10.8 Safety and Toxicity Considerations 201

10.8.1 Plant Toxicity 201

10.8.2 Potential Health Risks 201

10.9 Standardization of Herbal Medicine Using PSMs 201

10.9.1 Methods Used for Standardization of Herbal Medicines 201

10.9.2 Obstacles in Standardizing Herbal Medicines Related to PSMs 202

10.9.3 Variations in PSMs that Affect the Standardization Process 202

10.10 Conclusion 202 References 203

11 Isolation, Fractionation, and Purification of

Natural Products 207

Rushikesh P. Said, Jineetkumar B. Gawad, Mohan Kalaskar, Nilambari Gurav, Vishal Gokul Beldar

11.1 Introduction 207

11.2 Extraction 208

11.2.1 Consideration for the Extraction 208

11.2.2 Factors Affecting Extraction 208

11.2.3 Selection of Appropriate Solvent for Extraction 209

11.3 Extraction Methods/Technique 209

11.3.1 Maceration 209

11.3.2 Percolation 210

11.3.3 Soxhlet Extraction 211

11.3.4 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 212

11.3.5 Microwave-assisted Extraction 213

11.3.6 Pressurized Liquid Extraction 213

11.3.7 Ultrasound-assisted Extraction 214

11.3.8 Extraction with Ionic liquids 214

11.3.9 Accelerated (Pressurized) Solvent Extraction 215

11.4 Fractionation Techniques 215

11.4.1 Liquid–Liquid Fractionation 216

11.4.2 Chromatographic Techniques 216

11.4.2.1 Column Chromatography 217

11.4.2.2 Thin Layer Chromatography 218

11.4.2.3 High-performance Liquid Chromatography 219

11.4.2.4 Vacuum Liquid Chromatography 219

11.4.3 With Advances in Fractionation Techniques to Isolate and Purify Natural Products (e.g. counter-current chromatography) 220

11.5 Purification 221

11.5.1 Importance and Goals of Purification 222

11.5.2 Crystallization, Distillation, and Sublimation 222

11.5.2.1 Crystallization 222

11.5.2.2 Distillation 223

11.5.2.3 Sublimation 223

11.5.3 Advanced Purification Techniques 224

11.5.3.1 Flash Chromatography 224

11.5.3.2 Preparative HPLC 225 References 226

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