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C. G. Ball
35. Myhre JR.Balloon tamponade of hemorrhagic esophageal varices. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen. 1958;78:511–3.
36. Taylor H, Williams E.Arteriovenous stula following disk surgery. Br J Surg. 1962;50:47–50.
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40. Belkin M, Dunton R, Crombie HD, Lowe R.Preoperative percuta­neous intraluminal balloon catheter control of major arterial hemor­rhage. J Trauma. 1988;28:548–50.
41. Brendahan J, Swanepoel E, Muller R. Tamponade of vertebral artery bleeding by Foley’s catheter balloon. Injury. 1994;25:473–4.
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44. DiGiacomo JC, Rotondo MF, Schwab CW.Transcutaneous balloon catheter tamponade for denitive control of subclavian venous inju­ries: case reports. J Trauma. 1994;37:111–3.
45. Sing RF, Sue SR, Reilly PM. Balloon catheter tamponade of exsanguinating facial hemorrhage: a case report. J Emerg Med. 1998;16:601–2.
46. Navsaria P, Thoma M, Nicol A.Foley catheter balloon tamponade for life-threatening hemorrhage in penetrating neck trauma. World J Surg. 2006;30:1265–8.
47. Ball CG, Wyrzykowski AD, Nicholas JM, Rozycki GS, Feliciano DV.A decade’s experience with balloon catheter tamponade for the emergency control of hemorrhage. J Trauma. 2011;70:330–3.
48. Frykberg ER, Schinco MA.Peripheral vascular injury. In: Feliciano DV, Mattox KL, Moore EE, editors. Trauma. 6th ed. NewYork: McGraw-Hill Medical; 2008. p.956–7.
49. Eger M, Golcman L, Goldstein A, Hirsch M.The use of a tem­porary shunt in the management of arterial vascular injuries. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1971;132:67–70.
50. Makins GH. Gunshot injuries to the blood vessels. London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co; 1919. p.109–11.
51. Tufer. French surgery in 1915. Br J Surg. 1916;4:420–32.
52. Matheson NM, Murray G.Recent advances and experimental work in conservative vascular surgery. In: Bailey H, editor. Surgery of mod­ern warfare, vol. 1. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1941. p.324–7.
53. Ding W, Wu X, Li J.Temporary intravascular shunts used as a dam­age control surgery adjunct in complex vascular injury: collective review. Injury. 2008;39:970–7.
54. Ball CG, Feliciano DV. Damage control techniques for common and external iliac artery injuries: have temporary intravascular shunts replaced the need for ligation? J Trauma. 2010;68:1117–20.
55. Ball CG, Kirkpatrick AW, Rajani RR, Wyrzykowski AD, Dente CJ, Vercruysse GA, et al. Temporary intravascular shunts: when are we really using them according to the NTDB? Am Surg. 2009;75:605–7.
56. Ball CG, Kirkpatrick AW, Smith M, Mulloy RH, Tse L, Anderson IB.Traumatic injury of the superior mesenteric vein: ligate, repair or shunt? Euro J Trauma Emerg Surg. 2007;43:1–3.
57. Balogh ZJ, van Wessem K, Yoshino O, Moore FA. Postinjury abdominal compartment syndrome: are we winning the battle? World J Surg. 2009;33:1134–41.
58. Balogh Z, McKinley BA, Holcomb JB, Miller CC, Cocanour CS, Kozar RA, etal. Both primary and secondary abdominal compart­ment syndrome (ACS) can be predicted early and are harbingers of multiple organ failure. J Trauma. 2003;54:848–59.
59. Morris JA Jr, Eddy VA, Blinman TA, Rutherford EJ, Sharp KW.The staged celiotomy for trauma: issues in unpacking and reconstruc­tion. Ann Surg. 1993;217:576–86.
60. Ball CG, Kirkpatrick AW, Karmali S, Malbrain ML, Gmora S, Mahabir RC, etal. Tertiary abdominal compartment syndrome in the burn injured patient. J Trauma. 2006;81:1271–3.
61. Kirkpatrick AW, Laupland KB, Karmali S, Bergeron E, Stewart TC, Findlay C, etal. Spill your guts! Perceptions of Trauma Association of Canada member surgeons regarding the open abdomen and the ACS.J Trauma. 2006;60:279–86.
62. Kirkpatrick AW, Roberts DJ, De Waele J, et al. Intra-abdominal hypertension and the abdominal compartment syndrome: updated consensus denitions and clinical practice guidelines from the World Society of the Abdominal Compartment Syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 2013;39:2290–06.
63. Stone HH, Fabian TC, Turkleson ML, Jurkiewics MJ.Management of acute full-thickness losses of the abdominal wall. Ann Surg. 1981;193:612–8.
64. Balogh ZA, Moore FA, Goettler CE.Surgical management of the abdominal compartment syndrome. In: Ivatury RR, Cheatham ML, Malbrain MLNG, etal., editors. Abdominal compartment Syndrom. Georgetown: Landes Biomed; 2006. p.266–9.
65. Ball CG, Kirkpatrick AW, McBeth PB.The secondary abdominal compartment syndrome: not just another post-traumatic complica­tion. Can J Surg. 2008;51:399–405.
66. Cheatham ML, Safcsak K, Llerena LE, Morrow CE Jr, Block EF. Long-term physical, mental and functional consequences of abdominal decompression. J Trauma. 2004;56:237–41.
67. Cheatham ML, Safcsak K.Long-term impact of abdominal decom­pression: a prospective comparative analysis. J Am Coll Surg. 2008;207:573–9.
68. Brock WB, Barker DE, Burns RP. Temporary closure of open abdominal wounds: the vacuum pack. Am Surg. 1995;61:30–5.
69. Garner GB, Ware DN, Cocanour CS, Duke JH, McKinley BA, Kozar RA, etal. Vacuum-assisted wound closure provides early fascial reapproximation in trauma patients with open abdomens. Am J Surg. 2001;182:630–8.
70. Al-Koury G, Kaufman D, Hirshberg A.Improved control of exposed stula in the open abdomen. J Am Coll Surg. 2007;206:397–8.
71. Ball CG. The R.A.P.T.O.R. suite: resuscitation with angiogra­phy, percutaneous techniques, and operative repair. J Trauma. 2011;70:1579–80.
72. Kirkpatrick AW, Vis C, Dube M, Biesbroek S, Ball CG, Laberge J, etal. The evolution of a purpose designed hybrid trauma operating room ffrom the trauma services perspective: the RAPTOR (resus­citation with angiography, percutaneous treatments and operative resuscitations). Injury. 2014;45:1413–21.
73. Carver D, Kirkpatrick AW, D’Amours S, Hameed SM, Bevereidge J, Ball CG.A prospective evaluation of the utility of a hybrid oper­ating suite for severely injured patients: overstated or underuti­lized? Ann Surg. 2020;271:958–61.
74. Ball CG, Kirkpatrick AW, Wong J, Clements T.Simultaneous ver­sus serial/synchronous interventions in a hybrid operating suite for severely injured patients: a prospective evaluation of differences in R.A.P.T.O.R. outcomes and techniques. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2021; In Press.
75. Roberts DJ, Ball CG, Feliciano DV, Moore EE, Ivatury RR, Lucas CE, etal. History of the innovation of damage control for manage­ment of trauma patients: 1902-2016. Ann Surg. 2017;265:1034–44.
76. Kirkpatrick AW, McKee JL, Tien CH, LaPorta AJ, Lavell K, Leslie T, etal. Abbreviated closure for remote damage control laparot­omy in extreme environments: a randomized trial of sutures versus wound clamps comparing terrestrial and weightless conditions. Am J Surg. 2017;213:862–9.
77. Kirkpatrick AW, McKee JL, Tien H, LaPorta AJ, Lavell K, Leslie, et al. Damage control surgery in weightlessness: a comparative
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study of simulated torso hemorrhage control comparing terres­trial and weightlessness conditions. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2017;82:392–9.
78. Kirkpatrick AW, McKee JL, McBeth PB, Ball CG, LaPorta A, Broderick T, et al. The damage control surgery in Austere Environments Research Group (DCSAERG): a dynamic program to facilitate real-time telementoring/telediagnosis to address exsan-
guination in extreme and austere environments. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2017;83(Suppl 1):S156–63.
79. Ball CG.Leadership during the COVID-19 crisis and beyond. Can J Surg. 2020;63:272–3.
80. Ball CG. Do we need to reassess the meaning of “team” in our health care environments? Can J Surg. 2020;63:94–5.
Special Trauma Cases andDamage Control Surgery
CaitlynMcCall andLisaL.Schlitzkus
31
Trauma patients present with unique physiology anatomy and circumstances that challenge the trauma team. Injuries can be highly destructive and distort the anatomy and minor or sensational injuries can distract the team from the life­threatening ones. Multiple cavities can be involved and pri­oritizing operative interventions must be undertaken with little patient or clinical data. Further complicating the clini­cal picture is the delayed presentation of the trauma patient whether due to environmental transport or patient factors. Delay can lead to physiologic derangements from uncon­trolled bleeding and/or contamination. Historically the sur­geon would complete the operation including all bowel and vascular anastomoses and close the abdomen. Complications such as abdominal compartment syndrome the classic triad of death—hypothermia coagulopathy and acidosis—and later multisystem organ failure would ensue [1, 2]. This led surgeons to challenge the traditional approach by aborting the operation early and creating a staged approach in a con­cept termed “damage control”. First described in 1983 [3] damage control demonstrated improved outcomes in 1993 [4]. Improvements in certain stages have been described and recognition that many physiologic challenges begin the moment injury occurs has led to implementing changes in the prehospital setting [5, 6]. Initially damage control sur­gery was applied to intra-abdominal injuries but now has been expanded to include thoracic vascular and extremity injuries [7, 8]. The military uses damage control across the­aters—temporizing on the front lines at a forward operating
C. McCall Department of Surgery, Denver Health Medical Center, Denver, CO, USA
Division of Gastrointestinal, Trauma, and Endocrine Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Center, Aurora, CO, USA e-mail: Caitlyn.mccall@cuanschutz.edu
L. L. Schlitzkus (*) UCHealth Memorial Hospital Central, Colorado Springs, CO, USA e-mail: Lisa.schlitzkus@uchealth.org
base resuscitating the patient then transporting to a higher level of care at a well-established military base in another country or even continent [911].
Indications forDamage Control Surgery
The goal of damage control surgery is to recognize patients who are physiologically deranged, need second explorations, or are at risk for poor outcomes if the traditional approach with closure is undertaken. Classically, the lethal triad of hypothermia, coagulopathy, and acidosis appears as the patient reaches physiologic exhaustion. Waiting for physio­logic exhaustion to develop and then undertaking damage control defeats the purpose of damage control. Bleeding and contamination are controlled in the rst operation. The patient is then taken to the intensive care unit (ICU) for resuscitation, allowing time to recapture the patient’s physiology.
Identication of patients who benet from damage con­trol surgery is an art that requires experience and depends on communication of vital information. Prior to arrival, emer­gency medical services (EMS) communicating prehospital hypotension, hypothermia, blood loss at the scene or ongo­ing, and transfusions can trigger the trauma team to entertain damage control. Patient selection also plays a role. Older age is an independent predictor of mortality due to lack of physi­ological reserve [2, 12]. pH and temperature also are inde­pendent predictors of survivability; both affect enzyme, clotting, and myocardial function [12]. In fact, age, tempera­ture, and pH have been tested in predictive equations to pre­operatively provide a survivability percentage [12]. The ethical ramications of treating patients with extremely low chances of survival are debatable—false hope for patients and family, resource utilization, etc.; however, it does dem­onstrate that there is a group of patients who are unsalvage­able and that damage control surgery is futile [12].
While more than 115 indications for damage control have been published, there are only 59 unique indications [13]. Of
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025 L. Marshall Gillman, S. Widder (eds.), Trauma Team Dynamics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-86312-7_31
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those, only six have strong evidence that damage control may improve survival: hypothermia, acidosis, coagulopathy that develops during an operation, an abdominal vascular injury with a pancreatic injury, ≥ 1 major abdominal vascular injury, and two or more abdominal visceral injuries in patients who have received > 10 units pRBCs [13]. For the last three indications, injury patterns that require a prolonged denitive repair should undergo damage control. When sur­veyed, most trauma surgeons utilized temporary abdominal closure when fascia could not be closed (subjectively tight), subjective massive visceral edema, for a planned reoperation (pack removal, second look), or when abdominal compart­ment syndrome developed during attempted fascia closure [13]. Constant and effective communication with anesthesia is necessary to ensure frequent monitoring, guide resuscita­tion, and communicate the decision to abort the operation and rapidly proceed to the ICU [14].
Patients with multiple cavity injuries are ideal candidates for damage control. Ongoing bleeding can hasten physio­logic exhaustion, so hemorrhage control must be expedi­tiously undertaken, leaving no opportunity for denitive repair. For example, a patient with a thoracoabdominal or multiple stab wounds may need both the abdomen and medi­astinum or thorax explored, and the surgeon must make a judgment about which cavity is the primary source of bleed­ing or life-threatening injury. Once bleeding is controlled in one cavity, the surgeon must rapidly examine the next. Other situations that lend themselves to damage control are those where endovascular techniques may achieve hemorrhage control more effectively, such as severe liver or pelvic bleed­ing. While waiting for the endovascular team to arrive, the surgeon may explore the abdomen and pack the liver or pel­vis and even isolate and temporarily occlude the porta hepa­tis or internal iliac arteries. Once the endovascular team is available, the surgeon and radiologists can work together to combine operative and endovascular interventions to stop bleeding. Operations that require extensive reconstruction or anastomoses such as a “trauma Whipple” are ideal for dam­age control. Given that tissues and anatomy are generally destroyed, prompting these operations, a damage control sequence allows the surgeon to return and examine the tissue for further necrosis and ensure that the nal anastomosis is with the healthiest tissue. Ultimately, the earlier the decision is made to undertake damage control, the less physiologi­cally deranged the patient becomes with hope for a better chance of salvaging the patient.
Ground Zero: Scene toEmergency Department
Prehospital Trauma Life Support (PHTLS) is the backbone of prehospital treatment. Transport to a denitive trauma
center without delay is the primary goal of PHTLS and pre­hospital care, with a goal of less than 30min from call initia­tion to arrival at the trauma center. An airway must be established if a patient cannot protect his own. Needle decompression or tube thoracostomy may be performed for hypoxia and loss of breath sounds. Large bore IVs should be placed, and resuscitation should begin with isotonic crystal­loid. If IV access cannot be obtained, intraosseous (IO) access is an effective alternative that provides rapid access for uids and medications. Hemorrhage can be controlled with tourniquets or digital pressure. Data suggest that tourni­quets are underutilized, and when applied in the prehospital setting can result in a sixfold mortality reduction in patients with peripheral vascular injuries [15].
Fractures can be splinted to provide stability and decrease ongoing bleeding. Previously, two liters of isotonic crystal­loid were given, and then more crystalloid or blood products, if available, to achieve the desired response in vital signs. As discussed in Chap. 30, data now suggest that a systolic blood pressure of 80–90mmHg may be more ideal in a severely injured patient until hemorrhage is controlled under certain circumstances [16]. Administration of prehospital plasma for traumatically injured patients with hemorrhagic shock does have a survival benet, and benets outweigh the risk if the transport time is >20min [17]. Certainly, early administra­tion of blood and blood products should be undertaken if available in the prehospital setting in a trauma patient with hemorrhage, and prehospital resuscitation is an area that continues to be highly researched.
Frequent, effective communication is imperative between the prehospital and emergency department teams. Utilizing prehospital care protocols and live online medical direction can improve the prehospital care. Updating the receiving facility on vital signs and physical ndings allow emergency department personnel to mobilize resources. Necessary equipment can be gathered and procedure trays opened. Radiology technicians can be at the bedside waiting with portable X-rays and expedite any other radiological interven­tions such as computed tomography (CT). The blood bank can be notied if a massive transfusion is planned in order to begin thawing products. Most importantly, roles during the hospital triage are assigned and performed in an organized manner. Mobilization of the team prior to patient arrival decreases evaluation time and eliminates delay to imaging or the operating room.
Failure to relay important clinical information can result in undertriage. The American College of Surgeons Committee on Trauma (ACS-COT) has six minimum criteria to activate a full trauma team (conrmed blood pressure <90mmHg at any time in adults; gunshot wound to neck, chest, abdomen, or extremities proximal to elbow/knee; Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) <9 with mechanism attributed to trauma; patients transferred from other hospitals receiving blood to maintain
31 Special Trauma Cases andDamage Control Surgery
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vitals; intubated patients who have respiratory compromise or in need of emergent airway; and emergency physician dis­cretion) [18]. Compliance is highly variable for numerous reasons, but if one triage criteria is met, the patient is signi­cantly more likely to undergo an intervention (79%) with 35% being an emergent operation. Undertriaged patients are more likely to die than appropriately triaged patients [18].
The patient should spend as little time as possible—cer­tainly no more than 20min—in the emergency department resuscitation/trauma area, including procedures and adjuncts (see Fig.31.1). The trauma surgeon working with the emer­gency department team must decipher what the life­threatening injuries are in order to determine the next stage of damage control. In trauma patients with blunt mecha­nisms, multiple cavities may be involved, and the sources of hemorrhage are difcult to identify as they may not be visi­ble. Penetrating traumas are much easier to triage, given the external wound. It is important to determine trajectory; the external wound may appear to lie within a single cavity but may involve multiple cavities. It is important to place a marker such as a paperclip or an electrocardiogram (EKG) lead on the external wound prior to imaging to help deter­mine trajectory.
The majority of hypotensive trauma patients are in hem­orrhagic shock. A patient may exsanguinate externally or internally (thorax, abdomen, pelvis, retroperitoneum, soft tissues). If life-threatening bleeding is ongoing in one of the abovementioned cavities and/or the patient unstable, the surgeon should proceed rapidly to the operating room. Should a patient arrest just prior to arrival or in the resusci­tation bay, an emergent resuscitative thoracotomy may be performed to release a cardiac tamponade and/or occlude the aorta in order to maintain perfusion to the heart and brain. Since endovascular technology has further evolved, the use of resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta (REBOA) in trauma is being revisited [19]. While it cannot relieve a cardiac tamponade, REBOA can be used in blunt or penetrating trauma prior to arrest to manage non-compressible hemorrhage at multiple levels of the aorta without the morbidity of a large chest wound [19]. The femoral artery may be accessed percutaneously, or by cut down, and balloon placement does not require uoros­copy. This is much easier to do prior to an arrest and, in some institutions, is performed in every trauma patient or those with an SBP <90mmHg [9, 20]. REBOA is discussed further in Chap. 34.
Fig. 31.1 Arrangement of Emergency Department resuscitation area conducive to effective communication. Note that the recorder is adjacent to the Team Leader to read back information. Examiner should be on patient’s left side to facilitate Emergency Department (ED) Thoracotomy and other surgical procedures if necessary. Supply carts and medication dispensers/storage should be in close proximity if not in the same room along the walls. RT Respiratory Therapist, POCT Point-of­Care Testing, VS Vital Signs, EKG Electrocardiogram
Monitors,
Ultrasound
Equipment
FAST Exam
ED Physician,
Surgeon
Adjuncts
Nursing
IVs, Foley, POCT, Attach
Monitors and check
frequent VS
Pharmacist
Recorder
Nursing
Airway
ED Physicians, RTs
Team Leader
ED Physician,
Surgeon
Ventilator,
Airway
Equipment
Examiner
Primary and Secondary Exam
ED Physician, Surgeon
Surgical Equipment
Tracheostomy, Thoracotomy,
Laparotomu Trays
Surgical Back-up
Extra Personnel
for Procedures
Radiology Tech
Chaplain,
Child Life Specialists,
Social Work
EKG Tech
256
C. McCall and L. L. Schlitzkus
Massive transfusion protocol (MTP) should be imple­mented as soon as deemed necessary to ensure products are available as soon as possible. MTPs are low risk and associ­ated with a signicant survival benet (15.5). Smaller, rural, or critical access hospitals may need time to thaw product, so triggering the initiation of an MTP may be based on prehos­pital report. Larger institutions with high volumes usually have immediate access to the initial round of blood products in a fridge near or in the resuscitation area. Whole blood is now being utilized prior to component therapy. MTPs ensure a 1:1:1 (Plasma:Platelets:pRBC) resuscitation [21].
Depending on patient stability and resource availability, the team may elect to obtain a CT to gain further informa­tion. If a liver injury or pelvic fracture with bleeding is found, the team may proceed to a hybrid operating and endovascu­lar room (when available) to control hemorrhage operatively while mobilizing the endovascular team.
Again, effective communication is of utmost importance in efcient patient ow. The CT technologist should be notied that the patient will be arriving momentarily. Radiology tech­nicians (CT and X-ray) are paged/notied along with the trauma team at some institutions and respond to the resuscita­tion area to ensure a seamless ow. The ordered scans should be discussed and claried. It helps the technologist and radi­ologist reading the images to know the history and physical exam ndings as well as injuries the treating team is concerned about because the radiologists/technicians may recommend arterial and venous phased scans, thinner slices through worri­some areas, or additional scans while the patient is still on the table. If there is a possibility the patient may be proceeding to the operating room, notifying the operating room team at the earliest opportunity is ideal. Some centers place the OR staff on standby when the trauma team is activated in the emer­gency department or OR staff respond to the resuscitation area like radiology. While a trauma-ready operating room is always available at an ACS-veried Level 1 trauma center, the lights can be turned on, the room and bed warmed, and the nurse, scrub technician, and anesthesia team mobilized to prepare for a case. A trauma cart with basic supplies (shunts, staplers, tubes, drains, vacuum dressings), various trays (vascular, tho­racotomy, laparotomy), and a trauma suture tree should already be available in the room or just outside. In large insti­tutions, these supplies are kept in a specic room, but also on a portable cart that can be transported.

Damage Control Part 1: Operative Intervention

There are two goals in damage control Part 1: control of bleeding and contamination. The patient should spend no longer than 90min in the operating room, so the team must act and communicate efciently. Upon arrival to the room,
the surgeon should give the team a brief history, interven­tions undertaken thus far, lines and tubes in place or still needed, and the overall plan for the operation. It can be extremely helpful if anticipated problems are vocalized so that anesthesia staff can prepare for resuscitation and allow time for the nurses to have rapid transfusers and an abundant supply of sponges, basins, and large volume suction avail­able. In extreme situations, intubation may be occurring while prepping and draping the patient if the patient is not already intubated. In some instances, time will only permit splash prep. Assigning roles ensures that perceived, insigni­cant jobs are not overlooked, resulting in patient decompen­sation and a confusing clinical picture. For example, failure to hook up chest tubes to suction could result in re­accumulation of a tension pneumothorax and a hypotensive patient.
The positioning of the patient is dependent on which cavi­ties or extremities need to be explored, as previously deter­mined in the emergency department. Generally, the trauma patient is supine with both arms abducted at 90 degrees and prepped from chin to knees and laterally to the bed. If a com­bined thoracotomy and laparotomy is entertained and the hemithorax previously determined, a modied taxi cab hail­ing position is ideal. The patient is primarily supine, but on the ipsilateral side of the thorax to be entered, the chest wall is rotated medially about 30 degrees to the coronal plane and supported with a roll. The ipsilateral arm is abducted at 90 degrees, and the elbow exed at 30 degrees. Any extremity may be prepped, draped, and included in the operative eld. If a vascular injury is suspected, both legs and the lower abdomen from the umbilicus to knees should be prepped in the event that vein graft is needed. The general rule of thumb is always prep more than what is anticipated to be accessed.
Once a cavity is opened, hematoma and blood should be evacuated (usually manually due to clot), and the cavity packed with lap sponges. Compression of the aorta may be necessary to halt blood loss. If exsanguination is temporized, the surgeons should pause and allow anesthesia to aggres­sively resuscitate the patient. Unfortunately, we do not know an optimal systolic blood pressure (SBP) or mean arterial pressure (MAP) in early resuscitation [14]. All injuries must be fully exposed to localize hemorrhage and contamination. Bleeding organs on a pedicle (spleen, kidney) should be sac­riced in less than 10min per organ. Liver and lung resec­tions are non-anatomical and usually performed with staplers. Finger occlusion of a pedicle, the Pringle maneuver for the liver, or twisting the lung at its hilum are fast tech­niques to control signicant bleeding. Various maneuvers (Kocher, Mattox, Cattell-Braasch) expose the retroperito­neum. Most vessels may be ligated. If a vessel supplies an end organ or extremity, the vessel should be shunted [2225]. However, in life-threatening situations, even the inferior vena cava may be ligated at its bifurcation.
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Visceral contamination can initially be controlled with a clamp and then later during the operation, by stapling and removing the injured segment of bowel or simply whip stitching the injury closed. If a segment is removed, the patient is left in discontinuity due to time and the need for a second look, given the possibility of further necrosis. If an ostomy is planned, maturing the ostomy should not be undertaken during the initial operation. A temporary abdom­inal, chest, or extremity dressing is placed, allowing for rapid re- entry or examination while preserving the fascia and skin for denitive closure. These may be manufactured or homemade with negative pressure applied. Incorrect counts are common due to the emergent nature of the opera­tion. While attempts are made to count the number of sponges and instruments left in a packed, open cavity, the count should never delay placement of a temporary dressing and transport to the ICU.
Again, communication with bed control to ensure an ICU bed is available as well as with the ICU nursing and physi­cians facilitates the transition to the next stage of damage control. It may take time to move another patient out of an ICU room, clean the room, and bring the hospital bed to the operating room. Report can be called about 20–30min prior to leaving the operating room, which allows the ICU staff time to set up suctioning, warming, and massive transfusion equipment, gather pumps, tubing, and supplies, and prepare for the patient as well as notify respiratory therapy to bring a ventilator to the ICU room.

Damage Control Part 2: Resuscitation

The goal of Part 2 is aggressive, rapid resuscitation in order to correct physiologic derangements. Upon arrival to the ICU, the surgical team should communicate the brief his­tory, interventions, what needs to happen immediately, and what the team should be assessing for. A full laboratory panel should be sent upon arrival to the ICU, including a complete blood count (CBC) with differential, complete metabolic panel (CMP) with all electrolytes, creatinine kinase (CK), lactic acid (LA), arterial blood gas (ABG), and coagulation panel including brinogen and repeated every 4–6h to guide resuscitation and organ perfusion end­points. Viscoelastic assays—rotational thromboelastometry (ROTEM) and rapid thromboelastography (TEG)—are becoming gold standard testing since results are real-time and provide more information about clot stability and lysis, leading to a more tailored resuscitation [14]. Serial tropo­nins and electrocardiograms may also be included. Core temperature should be monitored, and rewarming measures such as blankets and warmed uids used because hypother­mia can inactivate the clotting cascade and impede the body’s ability to coagulate blood.
While the resuscitation ratio is debated, a 1:1:1 ratio of fresh frozen plasma (FFP) to platelets to packed red blood cells (pRBCs) is the current recommendation [21]. The goal of resuscitation is to achieve a hemoglobin 7mg/dL, INR <1.5, maintain platelets >100,000, and cryoprecipitate or brinogen concentrate may need to be given if the brinogen is <200mg/dL (<2g/L). If these goals are met, isotonic crys­talloid may be used, but be mindful that normal saline may lead to a non-anion gap metabolic acidosis, worsening coag­ulopathy. Lactated Ringer’s is more physiologic, but animal evidence suggests it may activate the immune system, caus­ing damage at the cellular level.
An adjunct to massive transfusion that should be consid­ered in severely injured trauma patients is tranexamic acid (TXA). One gram is given over 10 min, followed by 1g given over the next 8 h with initiation of administration within 3 h of injury [26]. TXA has been associated with lower mortality [26, 27]—most pronounced in the patients undergoing massive transfusion and those demonstrating hyperbrinolysis [27]. While the CRASH-2 trial found no adverse events related to TXA administration [26], the MATTERs study found a low but signicantly increased risk of PE (2.7%) and DVT (2.4%) [27]. Military data have dem­onstrated that TXA was independently associated with sur­vival and improved coagulopathy in massively transfused patients [27]. TXA inhibits brinolysis, is inexpensive, and has been deemed relatively safe; thus, its use has been grow­ing [27, 28]. Based on a systematic review, the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma practice management guideline could not identify a universal mortality benet to TXA, but “the safety prole...seems to be favorable when used early after injury (within 3 hours)”; thus, they condi­tionally recommend TXA in a hospital setting [21]. After publication of the practice management guideline, a multi­center, retrospective study was performed, powered suf­ciently, and demonstrated no increased risk of VTE, MI, or CVA and is associated with lower mortality and transfusion need [29]. Prehospital TXA trials are pending, but a meta­analysis seconds that prehospital TXA administration also signicantly reduces mortality without an increased risk of VTE [21, 30].
Initially, the use of recombinant factor VIIa, a procoagu­lant used in hemophilia, appeared promising for coagulo­pathic blunt trauma patients, reducing the number of transfusions and the need for massive transfusion [31]. Unfortunately, it did not affect mortality or reach statistical signicance for penetrating trauma [31]. Subsequently, its safety was questioned when data demonstrated an increased risk of thromboembolic events [32]. The CONTROL trial, a prospective, randomized, double-blinded, multicenter study attempting to determine the efcacy and safety of Factor VIIa, was terminated early when it did not demonstrate mor­tality benet with questionable enrollment [33]. Ultimately,
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future studies should be directed at answering these ques­tions [21]. In the interim, factor VIIa is reserved for patients in extremis, usually undergoing massive transfusion, with 200 micrograms/kg given at hour 0 and 100 micrograms/kg at post-injury hours 1 and 3. Again, it has not demonstrated a mortality benet, and, if given early, may decrease the need for massive transfusion, but the safety particularly with regard to VTE rates is unknown [21].
There is no single resuscitative endpoint. Clinically, urine output may be measured, stabilization in vital signs with titration of pressors off, and improvement in laboratory val­ues are indicative end organ perfusion is being achieved. The characteristic of the output from the temporary vacuum dressing and the amounts from the drains and tubes should be monitored. Ultrasound can help guide resuscitation, as the intravascular volume can be based on inferior vena cava (IVC) collapsibility and cardiac contraction. Correction of the coagulopathy, hypothermia, and acidosis are guidance parameters.
Another important role of the ICU provider is to perform a thorough tertiary survey, including physical examination and review of the data to ensure that no injuries or wounds have been missed. Once resuscitation endpoints are met, ide­ally within 24–36h, the patient is returned to the operating room for a second look, or Part 3—denitive repair. If at any point during Part 2 the acidosis or coagulopathy is not cor­recting or was trending in the correct direction, but then regresses, or if there is clinical evidence of ongoing, rapid hemorrhage, the patient should be immediately returned to the operating room as this is indicative of a missed injury or ongoing, uncontrolled bleeding.
Finally, complications of resuscitation can arise. Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and transfusion­related acute lung injury (TRALI) can result from aggressive resuscitation and blood product administration. One should, however, consider other differential causes for persistent hypoxemia, i.e., abdominal compartment syndrome. In the event of persistent hypoxemia, lung protective strategies such as ARDS Net ventilation should be implemented.
Compartment syndrome may develop in the abdomen even with a temporary dressing in place. It should be sus­pected if the cardiac return is low, the IVC is collapsed on ultrasound, the urine output decreases when previously appropriate, or in the event of persistent hypoxia or hyper­carbia. Bladder pressures should be measured frequently. If pressures remain high, the dressing may need to be modied, loosened, or reapplied.
For extremities, a Stryker needle can be used to objec­tively quantify the pressure; rapid, signicant increases in compartment pressures, a measured compartment pressure >30mmHg, or <30mmHg difference in the diastolic blood pressure and measured compartment pressure should prompt fasciotomies. Ultimately, compartment syndrome both in the abdomen and extremities is a clinical diagnosis.
Damage Control Part 3: Denitive Repair
Once the patient is resuscitated as dened by meeting end organ and hemodynamic endpoints, the patient is returned to the operating room for denitive repair. The temporary dressing and all packs are removed. The cavity should be thoroughly explored. If at any point the patient becomes hemodynamically unstable or physiologically deranged as in Part 1, begins re-bleeding, or demonstrates they are unable to undergo a lengthy operation, the temporary dressing may be reapplied, and the patient returned to the ICU for further resuscitation. Denitive repair entails restoring bowel conti­nuity, tissue debridement, and vascular grafts and anastomo­ses. Prior to closing the abdomen, an X-ray should be obtained and conrmed with radiology that no foreign bod­ies remain in the cavity. If multiple cavities are left open in Part 1, all cavities may be closed in Part 3 or only one, and Part 3 is repeated for each cavity.

Damage Control Strategy Under Special Circumstances

The following represents specic treatment strategies for unique conditions. The ultimate goal of each strategy is to implement the damage control concept early in care, combat the lethal triad, and transport victims safely to the hospital setting where denitive management can be provided.
Blast Injuries
Blast injuries are challenging as patients can suffer from both penetrating and blunt mechanisms. Treatment goals remain the same, and ABCs initially assessed. The provider should not become distracted by the often unsightly injury but rather focus on treatment according to protocol and standard prac­tice. The airway is managed in the same manner, with oxygen supplementation and intubation if needed. Cricothyroidotomy may be necessary with a blast to the face. Breathing, circula­tion, and IV or IO access are addressed per ATLS recommen­dations. Damage control with the blast- injured patients is done in large part by controlling hemorrhage. Hemorrhage sites are either anatomically compressible (e.g., extremity or axillary/groin vascular injuries) or completely non-compress­ible (e.g., truncal injuries). Patients with non-compressible hemorrhage sources receive the highest priority for immedi­ate transport to a hospital, as there are few tools available to prehospital care providers to manage such bleeding. Compressible hemorrhage sites are amenable to direct digital pressure or tourniquet control, which can be instituted by rst responders. Control of bleeding with proximal arterial com­pression is not advised as it does not address venous hemor­rhage. Using large stacks of gauze or additional dressings in
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lieu of manual compression should be avoided, as this tech­nique dissipates the pressure applied directly to the bleeding site and may delay identication of ongoing bleeding [34].
While the use of tourniquets has been controversial in the damage control situation, multiple reports in the literature on tourniquet use have dened their advantages [3742]. These include improved hemorrhage control upon patient arrival, decreased incidence of shock in those casualties treated with tourniquets, improved survival, and acceptably low tourniquet- related complications. Tourniquets should be applied to exsanguinating extremities as soon as possible in damage control situations. It is generally recommended that restoration of arterial blood supply must be completed within 6h from placement of the tourniquet [34]. Prior to patient arrival, it is helpful for the emergency department personnel to know if a tourniquet was placed and when, the character­istic of bleeding (dark non-pulsatile versus bright red, pulsa­tile), and a description of the injuries. When giving report at patient arrival, the transport team should include the time of injury and the approximate amount of blood loss at the scene. If the patient’s bleeding is controlled upon arrival, the pri­mary and secondary surveys should be rapidly conducted in the usual fashion, and the four remaining cavities assessed for hemorrhage with the adjuncts as described above. Given the potential injuries to extremities, these patients may ben­et from central venous access placed in the resuscitation bay or immediately upon arrival to the operating room.
Blast injuries can create penetrating wounds from shrap­nel but can strike a patient with great force, causing blunt injuries such as intraabdominal hemorrhage and contamina­tion concurrently. Military personnel frequently encounter dismounted complex blast injury (DCBI), an explosion to a foot patrol troop with a specic pattern of injury—traumatic amputation of at least one leg, severe injury to another extremity, and pelvic, abdominal, or urogenital injuries due to an improvised explosive device (IED) and land mines [35]. This is the ideal situation for damage control. Prior to proceeding to the operating room, the staff should be told to obtain a sterile pneumatic tourniquet and prepare for abdom­inal and extremity exploration and temporary dressings. If extremity hemorrhage is controlled with a tourniquet and the patient’s FAST is positive, and if two teams are available, both the extremity and abdomen may be explored concur­rently. If only one operative team is available, they should begin with abdominal exploration if the extremity hemor­rhage is controlled with a tourniquet. All exsanguination must be expeditiously stopped [36].
Traumatic amputations should be completed or revised as distal as possible with vessels ligated. External xation should be placed on the pelvis and long bones to prevent ongoing hemorrhage as well as pain control. Soft tissue dam­age is associated with many blast injuries; frank necrosis should be debrided, and contamination burden decreased
through irrigation and debridement at the initial operation. Soft tissue damage evolves and the goal should be to pre­serve as much healthy tissue for reconstruction so if tissue is questionable and not contaminated, do not debride it [36]. Should blood supply to an extremity be compromised for greater than 4–6h, or if there is already concern for compart­ment syndrome, fasciotomies should be undertaken in Part 1. If fasciotomies are not performed, it should be relayed to the ICU team to clinically assess the compartments hourly.
Burns
Many providers hesitate to treat burn patients as they are not comfortable and condent. The same ATLS principles apply. Burn patients, too, can suffer from multiple mechanisms as an explosion may cause a burn, produce shrapnel and pene­trating injuries, and throw the patient back, causing a blunt mechanism. As with any other trauma patient, the standard primary and secondary survey should be followed to identify life-threatening injuries.
Burn care commences at the scene. As in all circum­stances, personal protection is paramount. The provider must ensure that the scene is safe and the care team is not in harm’s way. Personal protection equipment should be applied. After self, the rst priority is to stop the burning process and remove the patient from the source [43]. Patients should be immediately placed on 100% O2 as the adequacy of the air­way is evaluated. The provider should pay particular atten­tion to signs of impending airway edema or collapse, such as hoarseness. Patients will often have singed nasal and facial hair or eyebrows. While these ndings are important to note and represent a signicant injury to the face, they are not specic for airway compromise. Hoarseness, on the other hand, is representative of vocal cord injury or edema and should prompt rapid intubation in the setting of a signicant mechanism.
After an airway is established, it is important to check the adequacy of ventilation by watching the chest rise and fall. Patients may have circumferential third-degree burns, which ultimately limit the expansion of the chest. In some circum­stances and under the direction of a physician, sharp release of the constricting skin may be necessary to allow for ade­quate chest expansion [43].
The American Burn Association (ABA) recommends that if prehospital personnel are unable to establish IV access, hospital transport should not be delayed. IV access ideally should be through unburned skin. IO access should be con­sidered to expedite the timeliness of resuscitation and trans­port. In the adult, heart rates can range from 100 to 120 due to catecholamines; higher than 120 may indicate hypovole­mia. Lactated Ringer’s is preferred (or an isotonic crystalloid equivalent) and should be run at 500cc/h. in patients over the
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age of 14, at 250cc/h. for patients between the ages of 6 and 14, and at 125/h. if the patient is 5years or younger [43, 44]. IVs must be frequently assessed because aggressive resusci­tation can lead to rapid edema, IV dislodgement, and subse­quent subcutaneous inltration.
The patient should be completely exposed and all jewelry, watches, rings, belts, and diapers removed. Remove contact lenses. A clean, dry dressing, such as a sterile sheet, should be applied. The patient should be wrapped in warm blankets to prevent heat loss. The trauma resuscitation area should be warmed above 80 degrees Fahrenheit. No attempt should be made to cool the patient to counter the burning process; this may be a potentially lethal intervention. Patients have lost the barrier needed for thermoregulation, and despite the appearance of burned skin, patients are often hypothermic [43, 44].
Burn patients at the extremes of age, with signicant, mul­tiple co-morbidities, with obvious >10% second and third­degree burns or inhalational injury or burns to sensitive areas such as the face, hands, feet, or genitalia should be directly transported to a burn center if possible. All others may be taken to the closest trauma center. Again, communication between the care components and damage control parts is imperative. A good report from the transport crew includes if the burn occurred in a closed space (potential inhalation injury), if an explosion occurred (multiple mechanisms), if the patient experienced a loss of consciousness (carbon mon­oxide poisoning or anoxic brain injury), and most impor­tantly, the time of the injury to calculate resuscitation recommendations. The airway and face should be described as intubation may need to be undertaken rapidly and may be extremely difcult due to edema. Knowledge prior to the patient’s arrival allows for extra supplies to be gathered, including a tracheostomy tray and a wide range of endotra­cheal tube sizes, extra clean sheets, and warming of the room. A Rule of Nines gure (used to calculate burned body surface area) should be posted in the emergency department and reviewed prior to patient arrival. Documentation in the patient’s chart should be completed as precisely as possible.
Resuscitation in burn patients is based primarily on urine output (0.5cc/kg/h. in adults, 1cc/kg/h. in children <30kg), so an indwelling bladder catheter is needed early. The Parkland formula—2cc/kg/percentage of second and third­degree burns of Lactated Ringer’s with half given in the rst 8h from the time of injury and the remaining in the following 16h—is a guideline of how to initiate resuscitation and may be adjusted to achieve urine output goals. It should be noted this is only a guide and often overestimates uid require­ments. Early communication with the burn center is impera­tive as they may adjust resuscitation and recommend tetanus administration. It is imperative that all team members moni­tor end organ perfusion, recognize resuscitation goals, and communicate about changes needed to achieve those goals.
If a burn patient is found to have a concomitant life­threatening injury such as intra-abdominal hemorrhage, the
patient should be taken to the operating room and explored and undergo the damage control sequence as any other trauma patient would prior to transportation to the burn cen­ter. The patient can be transferred with an open abdomen, a temporary abdominal dressing in place, and still needing a denitive operation. Resuscitation goals must be claried with anesthesia because these patients require a signicant amount of uid and often leave the operating room under-resuscitated.
Burn injuries are discussed further in Chap. 55.
Head Injury
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) continues to lead trauma statis­tics with high mortality rates and long-term disabling out­comes [45, 46]. Primary injury occurs at the time of the traumatic event; however, secondary injury, whether progres­sion of the disease process or iatrogenic, can be minimized. By preventing or recognizing the sequelae of the primary injury and avoiding clinical situations that worsen the second­ary injury, providers have a unique opportunity to impact out­comes. As always, no interventions should delay transfer to a neurotrauma center. While the Brain Trauma Foundation (BTF) guidelines [47]. support advanced life support as opposed to basic life support transport, no data support this statement. Ultimately, transport should be efcient and uphold the two main principles of the BTF guidelines: preventing hypoxia (SpO2<90%) and hypotension (SBP<90mmHg). Both oxygenation and blood pressure should be managed con­tinuously or as frequently as possible with the most accurate equipment available. A large prospective database has demon­strated that a single episode of hypotension or hypoxemia, the strongest independent predictors of outcome, can double mor­tality and increase morbidity [4851].
Management of the prehospital airway in a TBI patient is controversial and is dependent on the initial assessment of the patient. If the patient is being transported by ground in an urban environment and able to maintain SpO2>90% with only supplemental oxygen, data suggest that intubation with paralytics demonstrates equivocal or even worse outcomes [5254]. Unfortunately, much of the remaining data on intu­bation and paralytics are observational, retrospective, and controversial leading to no best practice guidelines [55]. Risks of intubation include esophageal intubation with fail­ure of recognition, aspiration, delay in transport, and may place personnel who do not frequently intubate in a high­stress situation, potentially worsening patient outcome. Hypotension with induction medications and respiratory arrest should intubation fail are the downfalls of prehospital rapid sequence intubation (RSI).
These risks should not deter intubation in a severely injured TBI patient (GCS <9) as on-scene intubation may improve outcomes in the sicker patient [56, 57]. Should the patient require intubation, the responder with the most expe-