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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5198_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
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- •Foreword
- •Preface: Trauma as a Team Sport
- •Contents
- •History
- •Documented Outcomes
- •Future Direction
- •References
- •Humble Beginnings
- •A New Paradigm Is Born
- •References
- •3: Evidence Supporting Crisis Resource Management Training
- •Introduction
- •References
- •Introduction
- •The Trauma Team
- •Trauma Team Leadership
- •Crisis Resource Management
- •Observe, Orient, Decide, Act OODA Loop
- •Observe
- •Orient
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction: Why Does Teamwork Matter?
- •Introduction
- •Team Culture: Not Just Leaders; Followers Too
- •Crisis Communication 101
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Background
- •Leadership Styles
- •Self-Awareness
- •Self-Management
- •Social Awareness
- •Relationship Management
- •Validation
- •Putting It All Together
- •References
- •7: Followership
- •Intro
- •What Is Followership
- •Why Is Followership Important?
- •Summary
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Situational Awareness
- •Situational Awareness: Level One
- •Situational Awareness: Level Two
- •Situational Awareness: Level Three
- •Attention
- •Stress
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Handover Foundations
- •Handover Challenges
- •Handover Structure
- •Written Handover
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •10: Engaging Team Members
- •Respect
- •Resources
- •Engaging Virtual Teams
- •Virtual Water Cooler
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Implicit Coordination
- •The Zero-Point Survey
- •Adaptive Coordination
- •Making It Happen
- •References
- •Acute Versus Chronic Stress
- •Recognizing Chronic Versus Acute Stress
- •Education Helps
- •Hyper-realistic Simulation Training
- •Resilience Is Individualized
- •Training Is Key
- •References
- •13: Stress Exposure Training
- •Introduction
- •Stress Training
- •Information Provision
- •Cognitive Control
- •Physiological Control
- •Overlearning
- •Mental Practice
- •Decision-Making
- •Team/Communication Skills
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Conclusions, Implications, Next Steps
- •References
- •15: Trauma Video Review
- •Introduction/What Is Trauma Video Review?
- •Team Simulation/Education
- •Performance Improvement
- •Research
- •Potential Barriers
- •Consent Processes
- •Other Considerations
- •Future Directions
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Pre-arrival
- •Patient Arrival
- •Resuscitation
- •Pre-departure
- •Communication Skills
- •Structured Handovers
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Origination
- •United States Prehospital System Legal Structure
- •Science Behind Prehospital Injury Patterns
- •Team Synergy vs Rock Star Player
- •Medical Errors
- •Controversy What Should Our System Implement
- •Training Quality
- •Active Killer
- •Realistic Training
- •Lessons Learned
- •Response
- •Nonmedical Personnel
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Future Direction
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •19: Prehospital Trauma
- •Introduction
- •Safety
- •Scene Assessment
- •Trauma Dynamics
- •Prehospital Ultrasound
- •Trauma Management: Tranexamic Acid (TXA) Administration
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •20: Transport Medicine
- •Introduction
- •The Trauma Clinical Network (TCN)
- •Direct Transport
- •Inter-hospital Transport
- •Emergency or Non-emergency Transportation
- •Monitoring During Transport
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Trauma Team Leader (TTL)
- •Airway
- •Respiratory Therapy
- •Emergency Medicine Physician
- •General Surgery
- •Orthopedic Surgery
- •Neurosurgery
- •Recording Nurse
- •Trauma Team Activation
- •The Trauma Bay
- •Trauma Team Function
- •Summary
- •References
- •22: Interprofessional Team Roles
- •References
- •23: The Trauma Bay Environment
- •Introduction
- •Surge Capacity
- •Decontamination
- •Communication
- •Control Center
- •Security Considerations
- •The Trauma Bay
- •Trauma Observation Unit Setup
- •Special Situations
- •Hybrid Operating Rooms
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Design
- •Formalizing Clinician-Designer-Builder Partnerships
- •A Human-Centered Approach
- •The Missing Link
- •Evidence-Based Design
- •Build
- •Train
- •Excel
- •Putting It Together
- •Summary
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Human Factor Analysis
- •Hybrid Operating Environment Lexicon
- •Summary
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Project Implementation
- •Results
- •Conclusion
- •Appendix A: Dam Tools Usability Testing Questionaire
- •References
- •Introduction
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Team-Based Principles
- •Continuous Improvement Processes
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •29: Trauma Resuscitation
- •Mechanisms
- •Neurologic Injury
- •Musculoskeletal Trauma Including Spine
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •30: Damage Control Resuscitation
- •Introduction
- •Massive Transfusion
- •Permissive Hypotension
- •Vascular Damage Control Techniques
- •Non-vascular Damage Control Techniques
- •Abdominal Compartment Syndrome
- •Open Abdominal Management
- •Damage Control Environments
- •References
- •Damage Control Part 1: Operative Intervention
- •Damage Control Part 2: Resuscitation
- •Damage Control Strategy Under Special Circumstances
- •Blast Injuries
- •Burns
- •Head Injury
- •Crush Injury
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •32: Trauma Team Decision-Making
- •Predictive Scores
- •Clinical Practice Guidelines (CPGs)
- •Trauma Team Leadership: Translating Decisions into Action
- •Future Directions: Toward High Reliability Organizing
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •33: Emergency Critical Care Procedures
- •Introduction
- •Airway Management
- •Tube Thoracostomy
- •Controversies
- •Antibiotics
- •Tube Selection
- •Occult Pneumothorax
- •Vascular Access
- •Peripheral Intravenous Access
- •Central Intravenous Access
- •Intraosseous Access
- •Ultrasound
- •Resuscitative Thoracotomy
- •Outcomes
- •Contraindications
- •Volume Expansion
- •Management
- •Diagnostic Peritoneal Lavage
- •Summary
- •References
- •Introduction
- •REBOA Programs
- •Partial REBOA
- •Intermittent REBOA
- •Vena Cava Occlusion
- •Tourniquets
- •Junctional Tourniquets
- •Abdominal Aortic Compression.
- •Hemostatic Agents
- •Topical Hemostatic Agents
- •Chemical Hemostatics
- •Physiologic Hemostatics
- •Hemostatic Dressings
- •Intra-abdominal Foam
- •Summary
- •References
- •What Is Interventional Radiology
- •Diagnostic Imaging Workup
- •Embolic Therapies
- •Gelfoam
- •Mural Repair
- •References
- •Non-verbal
- •Verbal
- •Wider Structural Perspective
- •Transferrable Solutions
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Pharmacotherapy
- •Paravertebral Block
- •Serratus Plane Block
- •References
- •Clinical Decision Support
- •Quality Improvement
- •Research
- •Trauma Systems
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Outcomes
- •The Future
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Challenges
- •Provider Stress
- •Non-verbal Communication
- •Standardized Communication
- •Strategy 1: Scripted Procedures
- •Strategy 2: Structure Triage Tool
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Fetal Monitoring
- •Radiology
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Elderly Population
- •Psychiatric Comorbidities
- •Anticoagulated Patients
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS)—The Basics
- •Advanced TBI Guideline-Based Care
- •Noninvasive ICP/CPP Determination Methods
- •Brain Tissue Oxygen Monitoring (PbtO2)
- •Extracellular Brain Chemistry—Cerebral Microdialysis
- •Transcranial Doppler
- •Near-Infrared Spectroscopy
- •Continuous Electroencephalography (cEEG)
- •Cerebrovascular Reactivity Monitoring
- •Cerebral Compensatory Reserve
- •Individualized ICP Thresholds (iICP)
- •Integrating “Omics” into Acute Phase TBI Care—The Future
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •44: Basic Trauma Ultrasound
- •Introduction
- •The FAST Examination
- •Technique
- •Uses
- •Blunt Abdominal Trauma
- •Penetrating Trauma
- •Limitations
- •Summary
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Trauma Ultrasound Development
- •Pneumothorax
- •Musculoskeletal Ultrasound
- •Head Trauma
- •Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Imaging Modalities
- •Plain X-ray
- •Computed Tomography (CT) Scan
- •Other Modalities
- •Critical Thinking
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Initial Trauma CT Protocol
- •Iodinated Contrast Administration
- •Emergency Trauma MRI
- •References
- •48: Disaster Medicine
- •Natural or Man-made Disaster
- •The Disaster’s Cycle
- •Incident Command System
- •Triage
- •“Second Hit” Phenomenon
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •49: The Multi-casualty Trauma
- •Introduction
- •Historical Perspective
- •Prehospital Management
- •Triage
- •Pediatric Considerations
- •Intrahospital Management
- •Transfer Corridors
- •Blood Bank
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Crew Resource Management (CRM)
- •Resources
- •Review Process Including Logistics
- •Transactive Memory
- •Team Building (Before)
- •Team Performance (During)
- •Team Debrief (After)
- •Health
- •Fitness
- •Interagency Collaboration
- •Bystanders
- •Emergency Medical Services/Tactical EMS
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Improvised Explosive Device
- •Anti-police Violence
- •Improved Community Preparedness
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Procedures
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Introduction
- •The MARCHE Algorithm Approach
- •Massive Hemorrhage Management (“M”)
- •Tourniquets
- •Wound Packing
- •Hemostatic Dressings
- •Junctional Tourniquets
- •Airway Management (“A”)
- •Respiration (“R”)
- •Circulation (“C”)
- •Vascular Access
- •Crystalloid
- •Hemostatic Resuscitation
- •Tourniquet Re-assessment
- •Hypothermia Prevention/Head Injury (“H”)
- •Hypothermia Management
- •Traumatic Brain Injury
- •Eye Injuries
- •Analgesia
- •Secondary Survey
- •Antibiotic Administration
- •Prolonged Field Care
- •Summary
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Hypothermia
- •Etiology
- •Pathophysiology
- •Lethal Triad (Diamond) Component
- •Treatment
- •Afterdrop
- •Resuscitation Progression
- •Prognosis
- •Team Dynamics
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •55: Burns
- •Incidence
- •Etiology
- •Prognosis
- •Initial Management: “ABCDE” Approach
- •Admission
- •Dressings
- •Nutrition
- •Multidisciplinary Recovery
- •Summary
- •References
- •War Zones
- •Casualty Care Team Preparation
- •Biological Weapons
- •Biological Warfare Historical Considerations
- •Personal Protective Equipment
- •Anthrax
- •Botulism Toxin
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •57: Nuclear Injuries
- •Introduction
- •Historical Background
- •Transportation
- •Hospital Care
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Further Reading
- •Introduction
- •Historical Perspective
- •Parabolic Testing
- •Surgical Field Testing
- •Diagnostics
- •Immediate Damage Control Procedures
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Pandemic Impact
- •Financial Support
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Staff
- •Retraining/Reassignment
- •Consultants
- •Space/Structure
- •Trauma Bay
- •Operating Room
- •ICU or Floor
- •Clinic
- •Systems
- •Country Level
- •Regional Level
- •Hospital Level
- •Division or Trauma Team Level
- •Conclusion
- •References

140
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Prehospital Trauma
MichelangeloBortolin andJacopoM.Olagnero
19
Abbreviations
EMS Emergency Medical Service
FAST Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma
EMS Emergency Medical Services
HEMS Helicopter Emergency Medical Service
HIFU High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound
IO Intraosseous (access)
IV Intravenous
MCVs Motor Vehicle Crashes
OHCA Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest
RTA Road Trafc Accident
TC Trauma Center
TXA Tranexamic Acid
US Ultrasonography
Introduction
The management and treatment of a trauma patient begins
immediately at the scene, in the out-of-hospital phase, and
determines a signicant part of the outcome for the patient
and the overall success of the trauma clinical pathway.
When the trauma team enters the scene to take care of the
patient, there is a rst crucial step to be taken as an immediate priority: the size-up of the scene. This is to guarantee the
safety of the team and to understand the scene and the situation of the event. The scene size-up is as essential as the rst
M. Bortolin (*)
Disaster Medicine Fellowship at BIDMC (a teaching hospital
of Harvard Medical School), Boston, MA, USA
CRIMEDIM – Center for Research and Training in Disaster
Medicine, Humanitarian Aid, and Global Health, Università del
Piemonte Orientale – UPO, Novara, Italy
J. M. Olagnero
Critical Care Nurse at Humanitas Gradenigo Hospital, Turin, Italy
Temporary Research Fellow in Nursing Science, Università
di Torino, Turin, Italy
approach to the scene. When the EMS team rst approaches
the patient, it is important for a complete assessment to be
undertaken as soon as possible: this assessment must establish what and where the problem is, what the impact of the
problem is, how to quickly manage the situation, as well as
gathering the information needed.
Providers are required to evaluate the patients quickly,
address major life threats, and make a full inventory of injuries. Without delay, at the scene healthcare professionals
need to be able to handle a broad spectrum of trauma patients
and clinical situations. Therefore, it is important for the
patient assessment to individuate all of the patients and their
critical situations in order to be able to act immediately and
in a suitable and timely manner, thus avoiding any further
decline. It is essential to understand the basic interventions
required in order to minimize the risk of further deterioration
and to understand when prioritizing patients and their needs.
It is crucial for all healthcare professionals to understand
what to look for and how to assess the condition of a patient
using a systematic approach. Having a systematic method is
essential for a rapid assessment, thus minimizing the chance
of failing to spot injuries and avoiding mistakes.
The Trimodal Distribution ofTrauma
andtheGolden Hour
In 1983, Trunkey DD., and several other authors, thereafter,
described a trimodal distribution of trauma deaths based
upon the time interval from injury to death: immediate, early,
and late trauma deaths, respectively, minutes, hours, and
weeks after the incident. [1] Referring to this trimodal distribution, it is possible to state that about 50% of deaths related
to a traumatic event occur at the scene or in any case up to an
hour after the event. Deaths that occur immediately following the accident, and therefore in this rst phase, are generally a consequence of severe and non-survivable injuries, and
there is no impact of the Emergency Medical Services (EMS)
on these situations. These patients are declared dead on the
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
L. Marshall Gillman, S. Widder (eds.), Trauma Team Dynamics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-86312-7_19
143

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M. Bortolin and J. M. Olagnero
scene or die shortly after arrival in hospital. In order to reduce
the mortality of these traumas, mitigation programs are
needed: the international and local development of wideranging prevention programs is of absolute priority and
validity, that is, both for the population and for the implementation of safety systems [2, 3].
When the mortality of the rst phase has not yet affected
the outcome of the traumatized patient, the out-of-hospital
trauma team must act quickly to ensure the prompt resuscitation of the patient, taking advantage of the short time window
to have an impact on the second and third phase of Trunkey’s
concept. The management must guarantee the swiftest and
best denitive treatment while in the eld to achieve the best
prognosis for the patient. Indeed, in the second phase of the
trimodal, mortality from the trauma develops within the rst
few hours following the accident so the intervention of the
trauma team acting directly on the scene is crucial for the
immediate and long-term outcome. In this phase, the role of
the EMS team is indispensable since the deaths that characterize this phase can be prevented by optimal prehospital care
and initial in-hospital care [4]. With reference to the third
phase of trauma mortality, it is also undeniable that the action
of the prehospital trauma team has repercussions on what the
patient’s course of recovery will be. In fact, there are studies
that underline the possibility of making this last phase of the
trimodal distribution minimal, attening the curve gradient to
zero, if the trauma is managed according to the high-quality
standards from the rst intervention that take place right at
the scene of the event [4, 5].
In close relation to this subdivision of trauma mortality
into phases is the concept of the “Golden Hour,” dened by
Cowley. [6]. This assumption is a conceptual reference present in trauma management’s way of thinking, which underlines that the vast majority of deaths occur in the rst 60min
following injury if prehospital and subsequent emergent
trauma care in the hospital are suboptimal [7]. In modern
trauma care, this concept of the “Golden Hour” is still
acknowledged as valid, though the period of time in question
does not really have to be one hour, but rather should be as
short as possible, the term “Golden Period” was coined in
substitution. In fact, it is known that for many patients 60min
of time between the event and treatment would be too long a
period and would be life-threatening, while for others the
time that could elapse may be longer. Therefore, the EMS
team must act efciently to reach an ideal balance between
the advanced treatment and stabilization of the patient in the
eld and minimize time spent at the scene in order to achieve
the best trauma patient outcomes [8]. The EMS team must
always keep in mind these two crucial concepts: trimodal
distribution of trauma deaths and the “Golden Period.” In
order to assure the integrity of these cornerstones, the trauma
team must focus on four practical key aspects which must be
carried out during the rescue [9]:
• The scene size-up: safety and scene assessment
• Trauma dynamics
• The primary patient assessment and performing lifesaving maneuvers
• The secondary patient assessment before transportation to
the hospital
The Scene Size-Up: Safety andScene
Assessment
The rst important aspect concerns the scene. Three points
are very important in sizing up the scene: the three “S”s—
assessment of the scene, the situation, and safety. The consideration of safety is fundamental to avoid going from being
the rescuer to being a victim.
Safety
A fundamental element that characterizes the management
of out-of-hospital trauma, which is not found in the emergency room, is the need to ensure a safe environment. The
safety of the scene is the rst aspect to be considered upon
arrival at the target of the accident, even before the assessment of the injured [10]. Upon receipt of the emergency call
from the Dispatch Center, the rescuer’s mind must imagine
the types of real dangers they might encounter. The dangers
that the scenes of a trauma can show it is good to remember
that these are not limited only to road accident situations but
are also present in other scenarios, from domestic to rural
ones, from industrial ones to disaster situations, up to the
possible situations of violence that can also be unleashed on
rescuers themselves. The dangers can be represented by different elements, such as people in possession of blades or
rearms, dispersed chemical materials, which represent the
most frequently encountered category, and the presence of
dangerous elements that can fall on the scene. In this context, it is necessary to remember that meteorological situations can also represent a risk. It is necessary to promptly
recognize where there may be a potential hazard or risk and
adopt valid strategies to mitigate the risk. This must be
shared with the team even before reaching the target.
Another aspect to improve the safety of operational scenarios is to always entrust the safety of the environment to technical rescue and above all to refrain from maneuvers where
sufcient safety conditions are not identied to allow the
team to operate.
The last decisive aspect regarding safety is related to the
management and positioning of the vehicle, especially in
reference to land vehicles such as ambulances. Statistics
highlight how EMS personnel have accident rates higher
than the general average of workers: it shows that working

19 Prehospital Trauma
145
in out-of- hospital rescue settings is a job with high correlated risks that need to be mitigated [11]. For this reason, it
must be a priority to manage the rescue vehicle at the target
in a prudent manner, especially when ashing lights and
sirens are used [12]. Upon arrival at the scenario, the vehicle
must therefore be positioned so that it is visible and that it
protects the team from collision with other vehicles [12, 13].
In order to mitigate the risk of road accidents involving
EMS personnel, the rst incoming emergency vehicles must
“draw the line” of the accident, to slow down and direct the
oncoming trafc.
Scene Assessment
After putting safety precautions in place, scene assessment
means recognizing potential and real hazards, understanding
the number of people involved in the event, the number of
casualties, and understanding if the team needs more
resources and the support of other EMS teams and/or
Agencies, such as Fire Brigades or Police. However, the
assessment of the scene of the trauma, as well as the preventive recognition of the scenario’s potential risks and dangers,
must start from the moment of the dispatch.
During approach to the target, the trauma team in the rescue vehicle must begin preparing to ensure adequate performance as well as the necessary equipment. At this juncture it
is also possible to devote attention to the division of tasks,
especially in cases where the information regarding the mission indicates that a large number of people are involved. To
divide the tasks before arrival and on the scene, a team leader
should be identied to coordinate the other crew members.
The interventions to be implemented should be divided
according to a logic that takes into account each team member’s technical and non- technical skills.
The rst visual assessment of the scenario must begin
when the rescue vehicle is about to arrive at the target. From
this viewpoint, the rescuers are able to see and begin to think
about what may have been the dynamics and kinematics of
the trauma, elements which will then be indispensable for
conducting a correct and exhaustive general assessment.
Looking at the scenario from a distant perspective can allow
us to perceive characteristics of the traumatic event that can
no longer be seen when the rescuer is immersed in the scene
and is dedicated to the patient. An experienced rescuer also
gets a general impression in these rst moments of rescue,
not only for the safety of the scenario but also for the relevance of the trauma. In this context, the rescuer’s experience
plays an important role since it determines a perception of
the contingent situation which is then maintained throughout
the mission and which is difcult to abandon. Therefore, the
“glance,” the experience, and the sharing of information, as
well as the collaboration of each team member, are very rel-
evant skills for the overall optimal management of the trauma
rescue mission.
The recognition of potential or real hazard is a crucial
point because it is important to avoid putting the EMS team
in danger and at risk of great vulnerability. To detect the
presence or absence of these elements, it is essential that
each member of the team uses all their senses and perceives
certain details, as well as sounds and smells, maintaining the
rationality of not being attracted only by the most obvious.
Trauma Dynamics
A crucial point of a trauma team in the eld is to understand
the traumatic event, the type of incident, and the trauma
dynamics associated.
The traumatic event is described in three different phases:
the pre-event, the event itself, and the post-event. The preevent phase consists of all the factors that can affect the event
in varying ways; among these, there may be features that
mitigate the effects of the trauma but also those that can
worsen the outcome. The pre-event phase can include prevention campaigns regarding road safety, the prevention of
domestic accidents, and even new technologies that can help
mitigate human errors and their consequences.
The event phase generally begins at the moment of impact
between a moving object and a second object. At the moment
of impact, various aspects must be considered, such as not
only the primary impact of two objects against each other but
also the concomitant movement of the organs that occur.
There is an exchange of energy between the object and the
human body or vice versa in any scenario, from a pedestrian
being hit, to falling down stairs, from a stabbing, to a motorcycle collision. The rescuer’s assessment takes these aspects
into consideration in an important way, including the direction of the energy exchange and, above all, the total sum of
the interchanged forces, in order to evaluate the injuries and
effects on the victim.
The post-event phase consists of the deductions that the
rescuer is able to make from the trauma scenario that has
been quickly and carefully assessed. All the features collected are then incorporated into the patient’s overall assessment and used for treatment choices; understanding the
traumatic event is crucial. For a trauma patient who is walking and is conscious, and appears less severely injured, it is
still important to look at the scene and to try to understand
what happened. Do not underestimate the patient, as missed
injuries and opportunities to treat can occur. A classic example is the patient who is conscious but has head trauma and
presents with a “lucid interval.” The lucid interval is a period
after the trauma in which the patient doesn’t show signs of
neurological compromise. But after this period, there is
neurological deterioration due to delayed secondary neuro-

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logical damage subsequent to the head injury. “Lucid interval” is observed in 30–40% of severe head-injury patients
who nally die. Therefore, do not underestimate trauma
patients who are walking and answering questions properly.
Trauma is generally classied as penetrating trauma or
blunt trauma. The mechanisms underlying both of these two
typologies can be superimposed in terms of the energy
exchanged between the two physical systems and the presence of the phenomenon of cavitation. Cavitation is the result
of the displacement of the tissues that make up the human
body from their physiological position following the
exchange of energy between the two bodies following
impact. This migration of the tissues can determine a return
of the tissues back to the initial position, sustaining however
damage (temporary cavity), or it can be characterized by a
destruction of the anatomical tissues with the creation of a
permanent cavity. A common example of a temporary cavity
that causes damage in a road accident is the impact of the
driver’s abdomen with the steering wheel; a permanent cavity is typically created in the case of a gunshot, in which the
bullet penetrates the body, destroying the surrounding tissues. These examples allow us to understand in general how
the type of cavitation is determined by the impact area
between the object and the human body; on the one hand, in
the temporary cavity, the area of the steering wheel that
impacts against the abdomen is large and therefore the
energy is more widely dispersed and blunt trauma is generated. In the case of the bullet, this has a signicantly small
impact area, thus releasing a lot of energy in a small space
and is able to create more severe injuries.
Trauma dynamics can be different between one trauma
and another. The rst important step is to understand the
mechanism of injury (MOI) and evaluate if it is signicant
(major trauma supposed) or not (minor). An MOI is signicant in the event of: (1) ejection from a vehicle, (2) death in
the same passenger compartment, (3) falls >15 feet, (4) rollover mechanism, (5) high-speed vehicle collision, (6) pedestrian versus car, (7) motorcycle crash, (8) bicycle crash, (9)
penetrating injury of head, chest, or abdomen.
Moreover, it is possible to categorize trauma dynamics in
accordance with the event and, in road trafc accidents
(RTAs), by the vehicle involved. This classication into different real situations is somewhat imprecise in completely
describing an event: often trauma dynamics are different and
intermixed. However, this subdivision can help the rescuer to
identify the potential damage that the different impacts can
generate [14]. This classication can also be useful in describing potential injuries or damages from types of traumatic
events other than RTAs with similar dynamics, such as falls.
Frontal Impact In this type of dynamics, chest damage is
frequent with possible fractures to the ribs and, due to the
resulting sum of forces, also to internal organs such as the
heart and lungs. In frontal impact dynamics, there are also
two paths along which the internal occupants of a vehicle
move, namely up-and-over and down-and-under. In the upand-over movement the driver is projected upwards frequently provoking head and neck, as well as abdominal
injuries, in which mostly kidneys, liver, spleen are involved
but also to large vessels such as aorta and vena cava due to an
increase in abdominal pressure. In the down-and-under
movement, the occupant of the car is pushed by the impact
downward and at the same time forward, inicting trauma to
the coxo-femoral joint and to the knees; fractures of the
femurs, tibia, and bula can be detected in which there is
also potentially an injury in the relative blood vessels.
Lateral Impact These typical dynamics are found in road
junctions and intersections. In this collision, injuries are
mostly found to the two bone girdles with fractures of the
collarbone and shoulder but also of the hip and pelvis. The
greater the force of the impact more signicant the deformation of the affected vehicle, the greater the probability that
chest injuries may be encountered, with rib fractures, pulmonary contusions up to aortic shear injuries. Other types of
injuries may involve the abdomen (liver and spleen), and the
neck and head due to lateral rotational exions.
Rear Impact A collision occurs between vehicles following the same trajectory at different speeds, identifying a
“bullet vehicle” and a “target vehicle.” In this dynamic, cervical spine trauma is common and the more serious due to
the greater difference in speed between the two cars.
Rotational Impact This occurs when the corner of the
vehicle hits an immovable object, resulting in a combined
dynamic between the frontal impact and lateral impact injuries. The greatest damage to the occupants of a vehicle that
undergoes a rotational impact is borne by the occupant closest to the point of impact with the obstacle.
Rollover In the event of high forces, there may be shearing-
type injuries, especially for the occupants of the vehicle who
are not restrained to the vehicle by the safety systems. In the
event of being unrestrained, ejections from the passenger
compartment can occur with consequent serious injuries.
In motorcycle trauma assessment, different and specic
dynamics are considered, such as head-on impact, angular
impact, and ejection. Commonly to these types of impacts,
the different center of gravity of the motorcycle, which is
always lower than the occupant, is considered as a feature
that distinguishes it from car trauma. Injuries resulting from
motorcycle crashes include a wide range such as head,
abdominal, thoracic, and vertebral trauma [15]. Injuries to
the spine appear to be difcult to mitigate by means of the

19 Prehospital Trauma
147
use of back protectors [16]; therefore, it is advisable, even
more so in the case of motorcycle injuries, to invest in preventive road engineering changes in order to reduce resulting
mortality and disability [17, 18].
In pedestrian traumas, the dimensions of the vehicle and
the victim, together with the intrinsic characteristics of the
patient, that is, age and co-morbid states, will determine the
injuries and their severity. Often, the rst contact between
the pedestrian and the vehicle occurs at the knees and the
hips, subsequently the pedestrian collides with the hood and
the windscreen of the vehicle, and nally the pedestrian falls
to the ground, often rst hitting the head [14]. Based on the
dynamics, traumas are commonly identied in the lower
limbs, the spine, and the head. However, the commercialization of SUVs has changed the trauma dynamic and subsequent injuries. Often, the pedestrian is hit at the level of the
abdomen and the pelvic area and subsequently falls to the
ground.
The Primary Patient Assessment
andPerforming Lifesaving Maneuvers
In the rst approach, in the rst seconds, healthcare responders must take a quick look at the trauma patient to have a
“rst general (eld) impression,” following the acronym
LISA, meaning:
L: Life—Are there any obvious, immediate life threats?
I: I—“I see…” (general impression)
S: Spinal stabilization—consider the need for spinal
stabilization
A: AVPU (a quick measure of level of consciousness—Alert,
Verbal, Pain, Unresponsive)
B—Breathing: Assess the patient’s breathing and signs of
respiratory distress; both cause hypoxia and so it is important to administer oxygen. In this rst assessment, quickly
check if the patient has signs of pneumothorax. In this
case, the treatment must be immediate and involves performing a needle decompression.
C—Circulation: The most important task in this part is to
identify and treat signs of major bleeding or shock. If
someone is bleeding, the priority is to stop the blood coming out. Keep in mind: “Stop the bleeding and treat for
shock.”
D—Disability: The aim is a quick evaluation of the neuro-
logical state. If the level of consciousness is reduced,
identify and x the cause. Consider the common causes of
a decreased level of consciousness: hypoxemia, hypercapnia, hypotension, hypoglycemia, drugs, and head
injury.
E—Exposure: The “E” is particularly important in a trauma
case. Examine the patient thoroughly. In a trauma case,
full exposure of the body is crucial. However, respect the
patient’s dignity and minimize heat loss, to avoid
hypothermia.
The primary assessment identies life-threatening conditions, such as pneumothorax or extensive bleeding, which
must be detected and treated as a priority.
Later, in order to further reduce the time spent and facilitate rapid evacuation to the most suitable Trauma Center
(TC), the secondary survey in many cases is performed during the transport itself.
The Secondary Patient Assessment Before
Transportation totheHospital
The general impression is the starting point in the evaluation of a trauma patient: on the rst approach to the patient,
it is important to immediately understand whether you are
managing a major or a minor case, and so whether the patient
needs advanced and quick management and treatment or not.
If the scene size-up and the general impression give you
clues as to the mechanism of injury and what is wrong with
the patient, then the primary assessment proceeds with the
ABCDE (Airway, Breathing, Circulation, Disability,
Exposure) standardized trauma approach. All of the steps
included in the ABCDE method are performed quickly and
efciently with the goal of minimizing time spent on the
scene [14].
A—Airway: The aim is to check, identify, and treat airway
obstruction. Always treat airway obstruction as soon as
possible: it is an emergency. Untreated airway obstruction
leads to hypoxia, and if not treated will cause death.
One of the aims of the second assessment is to get more information about the patient. The rst step is to perform a full
“head-to-toe” physical examination. Check every system carefully and then get information about the event and the situation
from the patient, if possible. It is crucial to understand the
signs and symptoms and the mechanism of the injury, to know
whether the patient has any allergies, thus avoiding further
side effects and complications during the therapy, whether the
patient has some comorbidity, and if any routine medications
have been prescribed before the incident.
It is also important, in the second assessment, to evaluate
pain. Moreover, the continuous evaluation of pain during
monitoring is important in order to understand whether the
treatment and/or the pain management is satisfactory. Giving
comfort to the patient is fundamental in the practice of every
healthcare professional.
At the end of the secondary patient assessment, one must
correctly report all the ndings, assessment, and therapy

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M. Bortolin and J. M. Olagnero
concerning the patient in the clinical le. During the rst and
the second assessment, the healthcare professional must recognize life-threatening situations and treat them accordingly,
stabilize the patient, and if possible diagnose potential
injuries.
Once the primary and a secondary assessment have been
carried out, the patient should be monitored: this means reassessing the patient’s condition and vital signs regularly, thus
identifying the impact of the treatment and being able to
detect any potential deterioration in the patient’s condition.
The measurement of vital signs and monitoring is mandatory
also during transportation. This enables the early detection
of the onset and progression of acute situations. Failure to
make these measurements could result in both not recognizing patient deterioration and not being able to act correctly to
treat it.
New Technology andTreatment Involved
inPrehospital Trauma Management
There are several technologies that have been developed in
the eld of medicine in the last century and in particular in
recent years. However, not all of them are always easily
applied even in EMS.The equipment available to the trauma
teams employed in the out-of-hospital management of
trauma is often small and made up of simple and easily transportable equipment. It is this last aspect that is relevant in the
choice of aids and technologies, especially where it is necessary to operate in rural scenarios. However, thanks to the
introduction of increasingly light, resistant, and small-sized
materials, it is increasingly possible to bring technologically
advanced tools alongside the traumatized patient at the place
of the event, and these can help members of the trauma team
improve the outcome of the rescue. However, these technologies must always be combined with an adequate training program capable of developing the appropriate skills in the staff
who use the devices. A new technology that is starting to
have an important role also in the prehospital setting is the
use of ultrasound (US).
Prehospital Ultrasound
Ultrasound is one of the aspects of technological innovation most introduced in EMS.Nowadays, ultrasound scanners are small, comparable to those of a smartphone,
thanks to the separation between the probes and the display where the ultrasound images are projected wirelessly.
In addition, the ultrasound probes can also communicate
with commonly used devices such as smartphones or tablets. This gives the opportunity to send the images to the
Dispatch Center or to the TC to receive a second medical
opinion or to prepare the in-hospital trauma team that will
admit the patient.
The type of modality with which the US is used in the
emergency management of trauma patients in the prehospital
setting is the “Focused Assessment with Sonography for
Trauma” (FAST) and is part of the resuscitation of trauma
patients recommended by the international panel consensus.
The purpose of FAST is to identify free uid which in acute
trauma patients usually means blood. [19].
Many EMS systems have implemented this equipment
on board emergency vehicles, ambulances, and
HEMS.Appropriate use of ultrasound can increase patient
survival. Several studies showed that prehospital US is feasible, and that the procedure is highly reliable in detection
of hemoperitoneum or hemopericardium compared with
the low accuracy of physical examination and hemodynamic measurements. An early diagnosis will provide the
prehospital physician with the knowledge to prioritize the
relevant initial treatment and to choose the closest appropriate hospital and transportation form [20]. Prehospital
emergency ultrasound can be introduced into an EMS as a
diagnostic modality that can benet patients, especially in
rural areas with longer transport routes and journey times
[20, 21]. Overall, the prehospital US appears to have a high
diagnostic accuracy. In particular, US is also characterized
in EMS by high sensitivity and high specicity on different
endpoints [22]:
• Pneumothorax
• Free abdominal uid
• Hemoperitoneum (both on site and during transport)
An aspect that must always be considered a priority in the
use of technology must be the training of EMS providers.
Those using the US must be specically trained and must
participate in continuous education activities [19].
In addition to a bleeding diagnosis, the US also potentially nds other elds of use in the prehospital emergency.
Although these practical applications are rarely mentioned
in the literature, it is also possible to apply the US in the
retrieval of an IV access. Another potential application of
US concerns the diagnosis of pneumothorax, for which US
has proved to be an effective tool even in the case of traumatized patients [23]. Still further applications of the US
are also possible in the prehospital eld among which the
conrmation of endotracheal tube placement, the diagnosis
of intracranial bleeding, the diagnosis of fractures in austere environment [22], everything as long as it is always
closely related to the patient’s condition, to priority clinical
needs, avoiding time wasting, and the organization of the
EMS, also in terms of distances to the TC.

19 Prehospital Trauma
Trauma Management: Tranexamic Acid (TXA) Administration
It is well known that a considerable number of preventable
deaths caused by trauma are due to the onset of states of shock
[24]. For many years in the past, the focus of the advanced
intervention of health care has been placed on volume replacement, but in recent years it has been noted that the priority
should be to control bleeding. This practice is also accompanied by the administration of tranexamic acid (TXA), a clotstabilizing medication, which has also been introduced in the
context of prehospital trauma management. TXA is able to
interfere with the remodeling process of the clot being formed
which is simultaneous with the coagulation cascade, necessary for stopping the bleeding, stabilizing the new clot.
The rst signicant study regarding the use of TXA in
prehospital trauma management was the CRASH-2 study
[25] which demonstrated that this drug is able to signicantly
reduce bleeding and therefore reduce mortality. In the
CRASH-2 study, a loading dose of 1 g over 10min and then
infusion of 1 g over 8 hours was administered; currently, the
EMS are introducing this treatment worldwide as an integral
part of the management of polytrauma.
149
Key Points
• The management and treatment of a trauma patient
begins at the scene, in the out-of-hospital phase,
and determines a signicant part of the nal outcome for the patient and the overall success of the
trauma clinical pathway.
• When the trauma team enters the scene, it must size
up the scene to guarantee the safety of the team
itself and to understand the scene and the situation
of the event.
• When approaching the patient, it is crucial that all
healthcare professionals have a systematic method
for a rapid assessment, thus minimizing the chance
of failing to spot injuries and avoiding mistakes and
wasting time.
• The primary and secondary assessment must establish what and where the problem is, what the impact
of the problem is, how to quickly manage the situation, as well as gathering the information needed.
• Healthcare providers are required to evaluate
trauma patients quickly, address major life threats,
and make a full inventory of injuries.
Conclusion
The management and treatment of a trauma patient is always
a challenge. And it starts at the scene, in the prehospital setting. The out-of-hospital phase determines a signicant part
of the nal outcome for the patient and the overall success of
the trauma clinical pathway. And it is fundamental in guaranteeing the best prognosis for the patient. Therefore, prehospital management and treatment is a key aspect in the
management of trauma.
To achieve the best results, the EMS team must follow a
systematic approach to evaluating the scene and the patient.
A systematic method is very useful in the evaluation of a
patient in every situation, a method that helps the healthcare
professional to recognize situations and priorities in order of
importance.
***
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