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M. Kreiser et al.

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Prehospital Trauma

MichelangeloBortolin andJacopoM.Olagnero
19
Abbreviations
EMS Emergency Medical Service FAST Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma EMS Emergency Medical Services HEMS Helicopter Emergency Medical Service HIFU High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound IO Intraosseous (access) IV Intravenous MCVs Motor Vehicle Crashes OHCA Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest RTA Road Trafc Accident TC Trauma Center TXA Tranexamic Acid US Ultrasonography

Introduction

The management and treatment of a trauma patient begins immediately at the scene, in the out-of-hospital phase, and determines a signicant part of the outcome for the patient and the overall success of the trauma clinical pathway.
When the trauma team enters the scene to take care of the patient, there is a rst crucial step to be taken as an immedi­ate priority: the size-up of the scene. This is to guarantee the safety of the team and to understand the scene and the situa­tion of the event. The scene size-up is as essential as the rst
M. Bortolin (*) Disaster Medicine Fellowship at BIDMC (a teaching hospital of Harvard Medical School), Boston, MA, USA
CRIMEDIM – Center for Research and Training in Disaster Medicine, Humanitarian Aid, and Global Health, Università del Piemonte Orientale – UPO, Novara, Italy
J. M. Olagnero Critical Care Nurse at Humanitas Gradenigo Hospital, Turin, Italy
Temporary Research Fellow in Nursing Science, Università di Torino, Turin, Italy
approach to the scene. When the EMS team rst approaches the patient, it is important for a complete assessment to be undertaken as soon as possible: this assessment must estab­lish what and where the problem is, what the impact of the problem is, how to quickly manage the situation, as well as gathering the information needed.
Providers are required to evaluate the patients quickly, address major life threats, and make a full inventory of inju­ries. Without delay, at the scene healthcare professionals need to be able to handle a broad spectrum of trauma patients and clinical situations. Therefore, it is important for the patient assessment to individuate all of the patients and their critical situations in order to be able to act immediately and in a suitable and timely manner, thus avoiding any further decline. It is essential to understand the basic interventions required in order to minimize the risk of further deterioration and to understand when prioritizing patients and their needs. It is crucial for all healthcare professionals to understand what to look for and how to assess the condition of a patient using a systematic approach. Having a systematic method is essential for a rapid assessment, thus minimizing the chance of failing to spot injuries and avoiding mistakes.
The Trimodal Distribution ofTrauma andtheGolden Hour
In 1983, Trunkey DD., and several other authors, thereafter, described a trimodal distribution of trauma deaths based upon the time interval from injury to death: immediate, early, and late trauma deaths, respectively, minutes, hours, and weeks after the incident. [1] Referring to this trimodal distri­bution, it is possible to state that about 50% of deaths related to a traumatic event occur at the scene or in any case up to an hour after the event. Deaths that occur immediately follow­ing the accident, and therefore in this rst phase, are gener­ally a consequence of severe and non-survivable injuries, and there is no impact of the Emergency Medical Services (EMS) on these situations. These patients are declared dead on the
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025 L. Marshall Gillman, S. Widder (eds.), Trauma Team Dynamics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-86312-7_19
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scene or die shortly after arrival in hospital. In order to reduce the mortality of these traumas, mitigation programs are needed: the international and local development of wide­ranging prevention programs is of absolute priority and validity, that is, both for the population and for the imple­mentation of safety systems [2, 3].
When the mortality of the rst phase has not yet affected the outcome of the traumatized patient, the out-of-hospital trauma team must act quickly to ensure the prompt resuscita­tion of the patient, taking advantage of the short time window to have an impact on the second and third phase of Trunkey’s concept. The management must guarantee the swiftest and best denitive treatment while in the eld to achieve the best prognosis for the patient. Indeed, in the second phase of the trimodal, mortality from the trauma develops within the rst few hours following the accident so the intervention of the trauma team acting directly on the scene is crucial for the immediate and long-term outcome. In this phase, the role of the EMS team is indispensable since the deaths that charac­terize this phase can be prevented by optimal prehospital care and initial in-hospital care [4]. With reference to the third phase of trauma mortality, it is also undeniable that the action of the prehospital trauma team has repercussions on what the patient’s course of recovery will be. In fact, there are studies that underline the possibility of making this last phase of the trimodal distribution minimal, attening the curve gradient to zero, if the trauma is managed according to the high-quality standards from the rst intervention that take place right at the scene of the event [4, 5].
In close relation to this subdivision of trauma mortality into phases is the concept of the “Golden Hour,” dened by Cowley. [6]. This assumption is a conceptual reference pres­ent in trauma management’s way of thinking, which under­lines that the vast majority of deaths occur in the rst 60min following injury if prehospital and subsequent emergent trauma care in the hospital are suboptimal [7]. In modern trauma care, this concept of the “Golden Hour” is still acknowledged as valid, though the period of time in question does not really have to be one hour, but rather should be as short as possible, the term “Golden Period” was coined in substitution. In fact, it is known that for many patients 60min of time between the event and treatment would be too long a period and would be life-threatening, while for others the time that could elapse may be longer. Therefore, the EMS team must act efciently to reach an ideal balance between the advanced treatment and stabilization of the patient in the eld and minimize time spent at the scene in order to achieve the best trauma patient outcomes [8]. The EMS team must always keep in mind these two crucial concepts: trimodal distribution of trauma deaths and the “Golden Period.” In order to assure the integrity of these cornerstones, the trauma team must focus on four practical key aspects which must be carried out during the rescue [9]:
• The scene size-up: safety and scene assessment
• Trauma dynamics
• The primary patient assessment and performing lifesav­ing maneuvers
• The secondary patient assessment before transportation to the hospital
The Scene Size-Up: Safety andScene Assessment
The rst important aspect concerns the scene. Three points are very important in sizing up the scene: the three “S”s— assessment of the scene, the situation, and safety. The con­sideration of safety is fundamental to avoid going from being the rescuer to being a victim.

Safety

A fundamental element that characterizes the management of out-of-hospital trauma, which is not found in the emer­gency room, is the need to ensure a safe environment. The safety of the scene is the rst aspect to be considered upon arrival at the target of the accident, even before the assess­ment of the injured [10]. Upon receipt of the emergency call from the Dispatch Center, the rescuer’s mind must imagine the types of real dangers they might encounter. The dangers that the scenes of a trauma can show it is good to remember that these are not limited only to road accident situations but are also present in other scenarios, from domestic to rural ones, from industrial ones to disaster situations, up to the possible situations of violence that can also be unleashed on rescuers themselves. The dangers can be represented by dif­ferent elements, such as people in possession of blades or rearms, dispersed chemical materials, which represent the most frequently encountered category, and the presence of dangerous elements that can fall on the scene. In this con­text, it is necessary to remember that meteorological situa­tions can also represent a risk. It is necessary to promptly recognize where there may be a potential hazard or risk and adopt valid strategies to mitigate the risk. This must be shared with the team even before reaching the target. Another aspect to improve the safety of operational scenar­ios is to always entrust the safety of the environment to tech­nical rescue and above all to refrain from maneuvers where sufcient safety conditions are not identied to allow the team to operate.
The last decisive aspect regarding safety is related to the
management and positioning of the vehicle, especially in reference to land vehicles such as ambulances. Statistics highlight how EMS personnel have accident rates higher than the general average of workers: it shows that working
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in out-of- hospital rescue settings is a job with high corre­lated risks that need to be mitigated [11]. For this reason, it must be a priority to manage the rescue vehicle at the target in a prudent manner, especially when ashing lights and sirens are used [12]. Upon arrival at the scenario, the vehicle must therefore be positioned so that it is visible and that it protects the team from collision with other vehicles [12, 13]. In order to mitigate the risk of road accidents involving EMS personnel, the rst incoming emergency vehicles must “draw the line” of the accident, to slow down and direct the oncoming trafc.

Scene Assessment

After putting safety precautions in place, scene assessment means recognizing potential and real hazards, understanding the number of people involved in the event, the number of casualties, and understanding if the team needs more resources and the support of other EMS teams and/or Agencies, such as Fire Brigades or Police. However, the assessment of the scene of the trauma, as well as the preven­tive recognition of the scenario’s potential risks and dangers, must start from the moment of the dispatch.
During approach to the target, the trauma team in the res­cue vehicle must begin preparing to ensure adequate perfor­mance as well as the necessary equipment. At this juncture it is also possible to devote attention to the division of tasks, especially in cases where the information regarding the mis­sion indicates that a large number of people are involved. To divide the tasks before arrival and on the scene, a team leader should be identied to coordinate the other crew members. The interventions to be implemented should be divided according to a logic that takes into account each team mem­ber’s technical and non- technical skills.
The rst visual assessment of the scenario must begin when the rescue vehicle is about to arrive at the target. From this viewpoint, the rescuers are able to see and begin to think about what may have been the dynamics and kinematics of the trauma, elements which will then be indispensable for conducting a correct and exhaustive general assessment. Looking at the scenario from a distant perspective can allow us to perceive characteristics of the traumatic event that can no longer be seen when the rescuer is immersed in the scene and is dedicated to the patient. An experienced rescuer also gets a general impression in these rst moments of rescue, not only for the safety of the scenario but also for the rele­vance of the trauma. In this context, the rescuer’s experience plays an important role since it determines a perception of the contingent situation which is then maintained throughout the mission and which is difcult to abandon. Therefore, the “glance,” the experience, and the sharing of information, as well as the collaboration of each team member, are very rel-
evant skills for the overall optimal management of the trauma rescue mission.
The recognition of potential or real hazard is a crucial point because it is important to avoid putting the EMS team in danger and at risk of great vulnerability. To detect the presence or absence of these elements, it is essential that each member of the team uses all their senses and perceives certain details, as well as sounds and smells, maintaining the rationality of not being attracted only by the most obvious.

Trauma Dynamics

A crucial point of a trauma team in the eld is to understand the traumatic event, the type of incident, and the trauma dynamics associated.
The traumatic event is described in three different phases: the pre-event, the event itself, and the post-event. The pre­event phase consists of all the factors that can affect the event in varying ways; among these, there may be features that mitigate the effects of the trauma but also those that can worsen the outcome. The pre-event phase can include pre­vention campaigns regarding road safety, the prevention of domestic accidents, and even new technologies that can help mitigate human errors and their consequences.
The event phase generally begins at the moment of impact between a moving object and a second object. At the moment of impact, various aspects must be considered, such as not only the primary impact of two objects against each other but also the concomitant movement of the organs that occur. There is an exchange of energy between the object and the human body or vice versa in any scenario, from a pedestrian being hit, to falling down stairs, from a stabbing, to a motor­cycle collision. The rescuer’s assessment takes these aspects into consideration in an important way, including the direc­tion of the energy exchange and, above all, the total sum of the interchanged forces, in order to evaluate the injuries and effects on the victim.
The post-event phase consists of the deductions that the rescuer is able to make from the trauma scenario that has been quickly and carefully assessed. All the features col­lected are then incorporated into the patient’s overall assess­ment and used for treatment choices; understanding the traumatic event is crucial. For a trauma patient who is walk­ing and is conscious, and appears less severely injured, it is still important to look at the scene and to try to understand what happened. Do not underestimate the patient, as missed injuries and opportunities to treat can occur. A classic exam­ple is the patient who is conscious but has head trauma and presents with a “lucid interval.” The lucid interval is a period after the trauma in which the patient doesn’t show signs of neurological compromise. But after this period, there is neurological deterioration due to delayed secondary neuro-
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logical damage subsequent to the head injury. “Lucid inter­val” is observed in 30–40% of severe head-injury patients who nally die. Therefore, do not underestimate trauma patients who are walking and answering questions properly.
Trauma is generally classied as penetrating trauma or blunt trauma. The mechanisms underlying both of these two typologies can be superimposed in terms of the energy exchanged between the two physical systems and the pres­ence of the phenomenon of cavitation. Cavitation is the result of the displacement of the tissues that make up the human body from their physiological position following the exchange of energy between the two bodies following impact. This migration of the tissues can determine a return of the tissues back to the initial position, sustaining however damage (temporary cavity), or it can be characterized by a destruction of the anatomical tissues with the creation of a permanent cavity. A common example of a temporary cavity that causes damage in a road accident is the impact of the driver’s abdomen with the steering wheel; a permanent cav­ity is typically created in the case of a gunshot, in which the bullet penetrates the body, destroying the surrounding tis­sues. These examples allow us to understand in general how the type of cavitation is determined by the impact area between the object and the human body; on the one hand, in the temporary cavity, the area of the steering wheel that impacts against the abdomen is large and therefore the energy is more widely dispersed and blunt trauma is gener­ated. In the case of the bullet, this has a signicantly small impact area, thus releasing a lot of energy in a small space and is able to create more severe injuries.
Trauma dynamics can be different between one trauma and another. The rst important step is to understand the mechanism of injury (MOI) and evaluate if it is signicant (major trauma supposed) or not (minor). An MOI is signi­cant in the event of: (1) ejection from a vehicle, (2) death in the same passenger compartment, (3) falls >15 feet, (4) roll­over mechanism, (5) high-speed vehicle collision, (6) pedes­trian versus car, (7) motorcycle crash, (8) bicycle crash, (9) penetrating injury of head, chest, or abdomen.
Moreover, it is possible to categorize trauma dynamics in accordance with the event and, in road trafc accidents (RTAs), by the vehicle involved. This classication into dif­ferent real situations is somewhat imprecise in completely describing an event: often trauma dynamics are different and intermixed. However, this subdivision can help the rescuer to identify the potential damage that the different impacts can generate [14]. This classication can also be useful in describ­ing potential injuries or damages from types of traumatic events other than RTAs with similar dynamics, such as falls.
Frontal Impact In this type of dynamics, chest damage is frequent with possible fractures to the ribs and, due to the resulting sum of forces, also to internal organs such as the
heart and lungs. In frontal impact dynamics, there are also two paths along which the internal occupants of a vehicle move, namely up-and-over and down-and-under. In the up­and-over movement the driver is projected upwards fre­quently provoking head and neck, as well as abdominal injuries, in which mostly kidneys, liver, spleen are involved but also to large vessels such as aorta and vena cava due to an increase in abdominal pressure. In the down-and-under movement, the occupant of the car is pushed by the impact downward and at the same time forward, inicting trauma to the coxo-femoral joint and to the knees; fractures of the femurs, tibia, and bula can be detected in which there is also potentially an injury in the relative blood vessels.
Lateral Impact These typical dynamics are found in road junctions and intersections. In this collision, injuries are mostly found to the two bone girdles with fractures of the collarbone and shoulder but also of the hip and pelvis. The greater the force of the impact more signicant the deforma­tion of the affected vehicle, the greater the probability that chest injuries may be encountered, with rib fractures, pulmo­nary contusions up to aortic shear injuries. Other types of injuries may involve the abdomen (liver and spleen), and the neck and head due to lateral rotational exions.
Rear Impact A collision occurs between vehicles follow­ing the same trajectory at different speeds, identifying a “bullet vehicle” and a “target vehicle.” In this dynamic, cer­vical spine trauma is common and the more serious due to the greater difference in speed between the two cars.
Rotational Impact This occurs when the corner of the vehicle hits an immovable object, resulting in a combined dynamic between the frontal impact and lateral impact inju­ries. The greatest damage to the occupants of a vehicle that undergoes a rotational impact is borne by the occupant clos­est to the point of impact with the obstacle.
Rollover In the event of high forces, there may be shearing-
type injuries, especially for the occupants of the vehicle who are not restrained to the vehicle by the safety systems. In the event of being unrestrained, ejections from the passenger compartment can occur with consequent serious injuries.
In motorcycle trauma assessment, different and specic dynamics are considered, such as head-on impact, angular impact, and ejection. Commonly to these types of impacts, the different center of gravity of the motorcycle, which is always lower than the occupant, is considered as a feature that distinguishes it from car trauma. Injuries resulting from motorcycle crashes include a wide range such as head, abdominal, thoracic, and vertebral trauma [15]. Injuries to the spine appear to be difcult to mitigate by means of the
19 Prehospital Trauma
147
use of back protectors [16]; therefore, it is advisable, even more so in the case of motorcycle injuries, to invest in pre­ventive road engineering changes in order to reduce resulting mortality and disability [17, 18].
In pedestrian traumas, the dimensions of the vehicle and the victim, together with the intrinsic characteristics of the patient, that is, age and co-morbid states, will determine the injuries and their severity. Often, the rst contact between the pedestrian and the vehicle occurs at the knees and the hips, subsequently the pedestrian collides with the hood and the windscreen of the vehicle, and nally the pedestrian falls to the ground, often rst hitting the head [14]. Based on the dynamics, traumas are commonly identied in the lower limbs, the spine, and the head. However, the commercializa­tion of SUVs has changed the trauma dynamic and subse­quent injuries. Often, the pedestrian is hit at the level of the abdomen and the pelvic area and subsequently falls to the ground.
The Primary Patient Assessment andPerforming Lifesaving Maneuvers
In the rst approach, in the rst seconds, healthcare respond­ers must take a quick look at the trauma patient to have a “rst general (eld) impression,” following the acronym LISA, meaning:
L: Life—Are there any obvious, immediate life threats? I: I—“I see…” (general impression) S: Spinal stabilization—consider the need for spinal
stabilization A: AVPU (a quick measure of level of consciousness—Alert,
Verbal, Pain, Unresponsive)
B—Breathing: Assess the patient’s breathing and signs of
respiratory distress; both cause hypoxia and so it is impor­tant to administer oxygen. In this rst assessment, quickly check if the patient has signs of pneumothorax. In this case, the treatment must be immediate and involves per­forming a needle decompression.
C—Circulation: The most important task in this part is to
identify and treat signs of major bleeding or shock. If someone is bleeding, the priority is to stop the blood com­ing out. Keep in mind: “Stop the bleeding and treat for shock.”
D—Disability: The aim is a quick evaluation of the neuro-
logical state. If the level of consciousness is reduced, identify and x the cause. Consider the common causes of a decreased level of consciousness: hypoxemia, hyper­capnia, hypotension, hypoglycemia, drugs, and head injury.
E—Exposure: The “E” is particularly important in a trauma
case. Examine the patient thoroughly. In a trauma case, full exposure of the body is crucial. However, respect the patient’s dignity and minimize heat loss, to avoid hypothermia.
The primary assessment identies life-threatening condi­tions, such as pneumothorax or extensive bleeding, which must be detected and treated as a priority.
Later, in order to further reduce the time spent and facili­tate rapid evacuation to the most suitable Trauma Center (TC), the secondary survey in many cases is performed dur­ing the transport itself.
The Secondary Patient Assessment Before Transportation totheHospital
The general impression is the starting point in the evalua­tion of a trauma patient: on the rst approach to the patient, it is important to immediately understand whether you are managing a major or a minor case, and so whether the patient needs advanced and quick management and treatment or not.
If the scene size-up and the general impression give you clues as to the mechanism of injury and what is wrong with the patient, then the primary assessment proceeds with the ABCDE (Airway, Breathing, Circulation, Disability, Exposure) standardized trauma approach. All of the steps included in the ABCDE method are performed quickly and efciently with the goal of minimizing time spent on the scene [14].
A—Airway: The aim is to check, identify, and treat airway
obstruction. Always treat airway obstruction as soon as
possible: it is an emergency. Untreated airway obstruction
leads to hypoxia, and if not treated will cause death.
One of the aims of the second assessment is to get more infor­mation about the patient. The rst step is to perform a full “head-to-toe” physical examination. Check every system care­fully and then get information about the event and the situation from the patient, if possible. It is crucial to understand the signs and symptoms and the mechanism of the injury, to know whether the patient has any allergies, thus avoiding further side effects and complications during the therapy, whether the patient has some comorbidity, and if any routine medications have been prescribed before the incident.
It is also important, in the second assessment, to evaluate pain. Moreover, the continuous evaluation of pain during monitoring is important in order to understand whether the treatment and/or the pain management is satisfactory. Giving comfort to the patient is fundamental in the practice of every healthcare professional.
At the end of the secondary patient assessment, one must correctly report all the ndings, assessment, and therapy
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concerning the patient in the clinical le. During the rst and the second assessment, the healthcare professional must rec­ognize life-threatening situations and treat them accordingly, stabilize the patient, and if possible diagnose potential injuries.
Once the primary and a secondary assessment have been carried out, the patient should be monitored: this means reas­sessing the patient’s condition and vital signs regularly, thus identifying the impact of the treatment and being able to detect any potential deterioration in the patient’s condition. The measurement of vital signs and monitoring is mandatory also during transportation. This enables the early detection of the onset and progression of acute situations. Failure to make these measurements could result in both not recogniz­ing patient deterioration and not being able to act correctly to treat it.
New Technology andTreatment Involved inPrehospital Trauma Management
There are several technologies that have been developed in the eld of medicine in the last century and in particular in recent years. However, not all of them are always easily applied even in EMS.The equipment available to the trauma teams employed in the out-of-hospital management of trauma is often small and made up of simple and easily trans­portable equipment. It is this last aspect that is relevant in the choice of aids and technologies, especially where it is neces­sary to operate in rural scenarios. However, thanks to the introduction of increasingly light, resistant, and small-sized materials, it is increasingly possible to bring technologically advanced tools alongside the traumatized patient at the place of the event, and these can help members of the trauma team improve the outcome of the rescue. However, these technolo­gies must always be combined with an adequate training pro­gram capable of developing the appropriate skills in the staff who use the devices. A new technology that is starting to have an important role also in the prehospital setting is the use of ultrasound (US).

Prehospital Ultrasound

Ultrasound is one of the aspects of technological innova­tion most introduced in EMS.Nowadays, ultrasound scan­ners are small, comparable to those of a smartphone, thanks to the separation between the probes and the dis­play where the ultrasound images are projected wirelessly. In addition, the ultrasound probes can also communicate with commonly used devices such as smartphones or tab­lets. This gives the opportunity to send the images to the
Dispatch Center or to the TC to receive a second medical opinion or to prepare the in-hospital trauma team that will admit the patient.
The type of modality with which the US is used in the emergency management of trauma patients in the prehospital setting is the “Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma” (FAST) and is part of the resuscitation of trauma patients recommended by the international panel consensus. The purpose of FAST is to identify free uid which in acute trauma patients usually means blood. [19].
Many EMS systems have implemented this equipment on board emergency vehicles, ambulances, and HEMS.Appropriate use of ultrasound can increase patient survival. Several studies showed that prehospital US is fea­sible, and that the procedure is highly reliable in detection of hemoperitoneum or hemopericardium compared with the low accuracy of physical examination and hemody­namic measurements. An early diagnosis will provide the prehospital physician with the knowledge to prioritize the relevant initial treatment and to choose the closest appro­priate hospital and transportation form [20]. Prehospital emergency ultrasound can be introduced into an EMS as a diagnostic modality that can benet patients, especially in rural areas with longer transport routes and journey times [20, 21]. Overall, the prehospital US appears to have a high diagnostic accuracy. In particular, US is also characterized in EMS by high sensitivity and high specicity on different endpoints [22]:
• Pneumothorax
• Free abdominal uid
• Hemoperitoneum (both on site and during transport)
An aspect that must always be considered a priority in the use of technology must be the training of EMS providers. Those using the US must be specically trained and must participate in continuous education activities [19].
In addition to a bleeding diagnosis, the US also poten­tially nds other elds of use in the prehospital emergency. Although these practical applications are rarely mentioned in the literature, it is also possible to apply the US in the retrieval of an IV access. Another potential application of US concerns the diagnosis of pneumothorax, for which US has proved to be an effective tool even in the case of trau­matized patients [23]. Still further applications of the US are also possible in the prehospital eld among which the conrmation of endotracheal tube placement, the diagnosis of intracranial bleeding, the diagnosis of fractures in aus­tere environment [22], everything as long as it is always closely related to the patient’s condition, to priority clinical needs, avoiding time wasting, and the organization of the EMS, also in terms of distances to the TC.
19 Prehospital Trauma

Trauma Management: Tranexamic Acid (TXA) Administration

It is well known that a considerable number of preventable deaths caused by trauma are due to the onset of states of shock [24]. For many years in the past, the focus of the advanced intervention of health care has been placed on volume replace­ment, but in recent years it has been noted that the priority should be to control bleeding. This practice is also accompa­nied by the administration of tranexamic acid (TXA), a clot­stabilizing medication, which has also been introduced in the context of prehospital trauma management. TXA is able to interfere with the remodeling process of the clot being formed which is simultaneous with the coagulation cascade, neces­sary for stopping the bleeding, stabilizing the new clot.
The rst signicant study regarding the use of TXA in prehospital trauma management was the CRASH-2 study [25] which demonstrated that this drug is able to signicantly reduce bleeding and therefore reduce mortality. In the CRASH-2 study, a loading dose of 1 g over 10min and then infusion of 1 g over 8 hours was administered; currently, the EMS are introducing this treatment worldwide as an integral part of the management of polytrauma.
149
Key Points
• The management and treatment of a trauma patient begins at the scene, in the out-of-hospital phase, and determines a signicant part of the nal out­come for the patient and the overall success of the trauma clinical pathway.
• When the trauma team enters the scene, it must size up the scene to guarantee the safety of the team itself and to understand the scene and the situation of the event.
• When approaching the patient, it is crucial that all healthcare professionals have a systematic method for a rapid assessment, thus minimizing the chance of failing to spot injuries and avoiding mistakes and wasting time.
• The primary and secondary assessment must estab­lish what and where the problem is, what the impact of the problem is, how to quickly manage the situa­tion, as well as gathering the information needed.
• Healthcare providers are required to evaluate trauma patients quickly, address major life threats, and make a full inventory of injuries.

Conclusion

The management and treatment of a trauma patient is always a challenge. And it starts at the scene, in the prehospital set­ting. The out-of-hospital phase determines a signicant part of the nal outcome for the patient and the overall success of the trauma clinical pathway. And it is fundamental in guaran­teeing the best prognosis for the patient. Therefore, prehospi­tal management and treatment is a key aspect in the management of trauma.
To achieve the best results, the EMS team must follow a systematic approach to evaluating the scene and the patient. A systematic method is very useful in the evaluation of a patient in every situation, a method that helps the healthcare professional to recognize situations and priorities in order of importance.
***

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