Практикум по функциональной грамматике коммуникативно-прагматический аспект (на материале английского языка). Учебное пособие

Глава 4. Основы анализа дискурса

In 1972, two seconds were added to time. Britain agreed to join the Common Market, and ‘Beg, Steal Or Borrow’ by the New Seekers was the entry for Eurovision. The seconds were added because it was a leap year and time was out of joint with the movement of the Earth. The New Seekers did not win the Eurovision Song Contest but that had nothing to do with the Earth’s movement and nothing to do with the two seconds either.

The addition of time terrified Byron Hemmings. At eleven years old he was an imaginative boy. He lay awake, picturing it happen, and his heart flapped like a bird. He watched the clocks, trying to catch them at it. ‘When will they do it?’ he asked his mother.

She stood at the new breakfast counter, dicing quarters of apple. The morning sun spilled through the French windows in such clean squares he could stand in them.

‘Probably when we’re asleep,’ she said.

‘Asleep?’ Things were even worse than he thought. ‘Or maybe when we’re awake.’

He got the impression she didn’t actually know. ‘Two seconds are nothing,’ she smiled. ‘Please drink up your sun-quick.’ Her eyes were bright, her skirt pressed, her hair blow-dried.

Byron had heard about the extra seconds from his friend, James Lowe. James was the cleverest boy Byron knew and every day he read The Times. The addition of two seconds was extremely exciting, said James. First, man had a man on the moon. Now they were going to alter time. But how could two seconds exist where two seconds had not existed before? It was like adding something that wasn’t there. It wasn’t safe. When Byron pointed this out, James smiled. That was progress, he said.

Задание 5. Определите количество минимальных дискур- сивных единиц в предлагаемых диалогических фрагментах. Обоснуйте свой вывод.

(1)Westray. Morning. Counselor. Good morning. <…>

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Westray. You seen the paper? Counselor. No.

<…>

Westray. Do you know who the Green Hornet is? Counselor. The Green Hornet?

Westray. Yes.

Counselor. He’s a cartoon character.

Westray. It’s all right. The newspaper doesn’t know either. He’s a biker <…> [38: 106–107].

(2)Dealer. Tell me what you see. Remember that you are not looking for merit. This is a cynical business. We seek only imperfection. Thai is a five carat stone. Tell me what you see.

Counselor (Bending to the microscope). This view. Dealer. Yes.

Counselor. The culet seems big. <…> The crown and pavilion don’t fit. The girdle comes out crooked.

Dealer (Raising his eyebrows). Yes. The crown and the pavilion may be well cut each in itself and yet stand alien to one another. Once the first facet is cut there can be no going back. What was meant to be a union remains forever untrue and we see

a troubling truth in that the forms of our undertakings are complete at their beginnings. For good or for ill [38: 17].

Задание 6. Определите, какой тип связи – семантический или прагматический – использован в приведённых ниже высказы- ваниях. Обоснуйте свой вывод.

(1)What is your obsession with cruelty to sea creatures? This does not show you in a good light.

(2)Got a story? Ring the Sun on 02 07 782 4104.

(3)“We aren’t told how to behave around the Queen like this. She’s very happy for people to greet her.”

(4)Thursday was hottest yet. Met Office admit mistake.

(5)Boris Johnson is planning to bring a dog to №10, it was revealed yesterday. But insiders say it would have to live with cats as Larry will be staying.

(6)Dream Team season with betway is back with L 100K to be won. Download the app or go to dreamteamfe.com.

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Глава 4. Основы анализа дискурса

(7)Who really does the chores? Take our quiz to find out: page 20.

(8)OK, so it’s hot. …Can’t we all just enjoy it?

Задание 7. Укажите языковые средства речевого контакта

иобъясните их использование в следующих примерах.

(1)Laura. Are you awake?

Counselor. No.

Laura. Okay.

Counselor. What time is it?

Laura. Two o’clock. Almost two o’clock. Counselor. Two o’clock what?

Laura. What?

Counselor. AM or PM

Laura. You’re not serious. Counselor. Not entirely. Laura. It’s afternoon [38: 3].

(2)A small grocery store. A young man dressed in a bright green leather motorcycle outfit <…> is waiting in line <…>. The woman in front of him has unloaded her groceries onto the conveyor belt and the clerk is adding them up. She turns and smiles at the boy. He’s holding a ten-pound bag of dogfood.

Woman. Do you have a dog? Young Man. Do I have a dog. Woman (Smiling). Yes.

Young Man. No Mam.

Woman (A bit dis concerted). Oh. Young Man. I don’t have a dog. Woman. Okay.

Young Man. These are for me. Woman. For you.

Young Man. Yes Mam. It’s a diet. Woman. A diet?

Young Man. Yes Mam <…> [38: 25–26].

(3)A small and bare conference room for lawyers and their clients at the Texas State Penitentiary for Women <…>

Counselor. Hey.

Ruth. Did you bring cigarettes?

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Counselor. Yeah. <…>

(Arranging his files on the table). I know you use those things to trade with but I still don’t understand what it is that you trade for.

Ruth (Opening a pack of cigarettes and tapping one out). You don’t want to know.

Counselor. They treating you well? Ruth. Oh yeah. Peachy.

Counselor. You’ve got a preliminary hearing on the seventeenth. What size dress do you wear?

Ruth. I wear a seven <…> [38: 64–65].

(4)Counselor. It’s just that I don’t know what it is that you’re trying to tell me.

Reiner. I know.

Counselor. Does this have anything to do with the deal? Reiner. I don’t know. You’re right. I shouldn’t have told you. Just forget it.

Counselor. Forget it.

Reiner. Yeah.

Counselor. How do you propose that I do that?

Reiner. I don’t know. Jesus, Counselor. How do I know? [38: 96].

Задание 8. Опишите факторы, составляющие ситуационный контекст в предлагаемых ниже текстовых примерах (тип деятель- ности, предмет общения, статусно-ролевые отношения, место

иобстановка общения, социально-культурный «фон» и пр.).

(1)She thought about it, thought about staying or leaving and decided that since he knew about her engagement, it would probably be all right. Or at least not wrong. She smiled slightly

and nodded.

“ I’d like that.”

“Good. How about dinner? I know a place that serves the best crab in town.”

“Sounds great. Where?”

“My house. I’ve had the traps out all week, and I saw that I had some good ones caged a couple of days ago. Do you mind?” “No, that sounds fine” [52: 48].

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Глава 4. Основы анализа дискурса

(2)“I had a wonderful time tonight, Landon,” Jamie said. “So did I,” I answered, feeling Hegbert’s eyes on me.

I wondered if he knew I’d been holding her hand during the car ride home.

“What time should I come over tomorrow?” she asked. Hegbert’s eyebrow raised just a little.

“I’ll come over to get you. Is five o’clock okay?”

She looked over her shoulder. “Daddy, would you mind if I visited with Landon and his parents tomorrow?”

Hegbert brought his hand to his eyes and started rubbing them. He sighed.

“If it’s important to you, you can,” he said [50: 162].

(3)Dr. Barnwell peeks in.

“I noticed your light was on. Do you mind if I come in?” “No,” I say, shaking my head.

He comes in and looks around the room before taking a seat a few feet from me.

“I hear,” he says, “you had a good day with Allie.”

He smiles. He is intrigued by us and the relationship we have. I do not know if his interest is entirely professional.

“I suppose so.”

He cocks his head at my answer and looks at me. “You okay, Noah? You look a little down.”

“I’m fine. Just a little tired.” “How was Allie today?”

“She was okay. We talked for almost four hours.” “Four hours? Noah, that’s … incredible.”

I can only not. He goes on, shaking his head.

“I’ve never seen anything like it, or even heard about it. I guess that’s what love is all about. You two were meant for each other. She must love you very much. You know that, don’t you?”

“I know,” I say, but I can’t say anything more. <…> [52: 194– 195].

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ТЕМА 3. ОСОБЕННОСТИ ФУНКЦИОНАЛЬНОЙ

ОРГАНИЗАЦИИ ДИСКУРСА

Вопросы для самоконтроля

1.Какие две стратегии внутренней организации устного или письменного дискурса выделяют исследователи ди- скурс-анализа?

2.Что включает нарративная модель организации дискурса?

3.Чем характеризуется нарративная модель организации ди- скурса?

4.Какие явления обеспечивают поступательный ход развития дискурса?

5.Как обеспечивается «непрерывный» ход организации ин- формации в нарративном дискурсе?

6.Чем характеризуется «прерывистый» тип организации ин- формации в ненарративном дискурсе?

7.В чём заключается специфическая прагматическая функ- ция вербальных дискурсивных маркеров?

8.Как можно подтвердить тот факт, что в группу дискурсив- ных маркеров входят языковые единицы различного грам- матического статуса?

9.Существует ли одно-однозначное соответствие между фор- мой дискурсивного маркера и выполняемой им прагмати- ческой функцией?

10.Чемдискурсивныемаркерыотличаютсяотобычныхязыко- вых связок?

11.Какие типы значения в высказывании выделяет современ- ная прагмалингвистика?

12.Как реализуется содержательное значение высказывания?

13.Как передаётся прагматическое значение высказывания?

14.Что такое «прагматический маркер» и «дискурсивный мар- кер» согласно теории Б. Фрейзера?

15.Какие функциональные типы включает система прагмати- ческих маркеров по Б. Фрейзеру? Каковы их функции?

16.Что такое дискурсивные маркеры по Б. Фрейзеру?

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Глава 4. Основы анализа дискурса

17.Как влияет удаление дискурсивного маркера на восприятие информации слушающим?

18.В чём отличие параллельных прагматических маркеров (междометий, заполнителей пауз хезитации) от омонимич- ных форм дискурсивных маркеров по Б. Фрейзеру?

19.Какова типология дискурсивных маркеров по Б. Фрейзеру?

20.Какие словосочетания входят в подкласс маркеров, сиг- нализирующих о смене темы дискурса (topic markers)? Приведите текстовые примеры.

21.Какиеязыковыеэлементывходятвподклассмаркеров, сиг- нализирующих о характере развития дискурса и деятель- ности говорящего по его формированию (discourse activity markers)? Приведите текстовые примеры с последующим комментарием.

22.Какие дискурсивные маркеры сигнализируют о взаимо-

действии интенции («посыла») данного высказывания с интенциями предыдущего высказывания (дискурса) (message relationship markerts)? Назовите типы этого взаи-

модействия.

23.Как функционируют дискурсивные маркеры в письменных нарративах? Приведите примеры.

24.Какова роль дискурсивного маркера ‘and’ в устных нарра- тивах?

25.Какие маркеры свидетельствуют о спонтанном характере устного нарратива?

26.Что такое «рамочная структура» авторского повествования в ненарративном дискурсе?

27.Каким образом референциальные единицы позволяют про- следить развитие персонажей в повествовательной струк- туре нарративного дискурса?

28.В каких случаях используется прямая номинация персо- нажа как связующего компонента повествовательного ди- скурса?

29.Чем обусловлено чередование номинативных и место- имённых референциальных единиц в ненарративных ди- скурсах?

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30.Что такое «лексическое капсулирование» как стратегия по- строения ненарративного дискурса?

31.Как обеспечивается связность в ненарративном дискурсе через контрастное взаимодействие трёх местоимений: it, this, that?

32. Какова роль грамматических временных форм глагола

в разных жанрах ненарративного дискурса?

33.Как определяется лексическая связность в организации ди- скурса?

34.Что является индикатором лексической густоты и лексиче- ской дистрибуции на одну единицу конкретного текста?

35.Чтотакое«металингвистическиеединицы» икаконифунк- ционируют в разных типах дискурсов?

36. Как функционируют широкозначные существительные в качестве лексического средства связности в ненарратив- ном дискурсе?

37.Как осуществляется связность через так называемые prediction acts? Каковы языковые средства их реализации?

38.Что относится к «синтаксическим повторам» в структуре дискурса?

39.Какфункционируютсинтаксическиеповторыдляосущест- вления дискурсивной связности в нарративных и ненарра- тивных дискурсах?

40.Как функционируют синтаксические повторы в тематиче- ской организации дискурса?

Практические задания Задание 1. Определите средства «непрерывного» хода орга-

низации информации в приведённых фрагментах.

(1)She started another pot of sweet tea, wiping down the station. A moment later, she felt someone tap her on the shoulder. She turned to see Ivan’s daughter, Eileen. A pretty ponytailed nineteen – year – old, she was working part-time at the restaurant hostess [51: 2].

(2)“We could double-date. Ricky and Steve go fishing together.”

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Глава 4. Основы анализа дискурса

Kate wondered if Ricky had put her up to it or whether it was Melody’s idea. Maybe both. In the evenings, after the restaurant closed, most of the staff stayed around for a while, visiting over a couple of beers. Aside from Katie, everyone had worked at Ivan’s for years [51: 5].

(3)Still … there was one possibility, he supposed. Another woman interested him, though he knew almost nothing about her, aside from the fact that she was single. She’d been coming to the store once or twice a week early March. The first time he’d seen her, she was pale and gaunt, almost desperately thin. Ordinarily, he wouldn’t have given her a second glance [51: 22].

(4)Little girls. They could melt the toughest hearts.

Alex was straitening some of the condiments when he heard the bell on the front door jingle. Raising his head over the aisle, he saw Katie enter the store [51: 27].

(5)“I’m not sure how much I should say,” Jo added. “But I can tell you this: he’s a good man. He’s the kind of man you can count on to do the right thing. You can see that in how much he loves his kids” [51: 43].

(6)Philadelphia. She might have left again from there to parts unknown, but it was the only lead he had. Plus, he knew she didn’t have much money.

He’d packed a bag and hopped in his car and drove to Philadelphia. He parked at the bus station and tried to think like her. He was a good detective and he knew that if he could think like her, he’d be able to find her. People, he’d learned, were

predictable [51: 214].

Задание2. Охарактеризуйте«прерывистый» типорганизации информации в предлагаемых ненарративных фрагментах.

(1)It’s official: new figures show The Sun has been hotter than ever this summer.

Our website welcomed a massive 33 million unique visitors in June, according to a new report from industry analyst Comscore [56: 2].

(2)A cyber security expert who helped to stop a global virus has been spared jail for making his own malware.

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Marcus Hutchius, 25, of Ilfracombe, Devon, admitted making malicious software in the US [56: 4].

(3)Patients and staff face “totally unbearable” conditions in hospitals as Britain is hit by recordbreaking temperatures. Public health expert Dr. Nick Scriven warned medics are “so busy they cannot have wards to find cold drinks” for themselves or their patients [56: 6].

(4)“<…> The most important fact about a letter is that it reveals you as the writer of it, reflecting your appearance, your intellect, your taste, and your character. The letter is “you” in every way. <…>

<…> Whenever you write a letter to a person, you should have in front of you his last letter to be sure that you will answer any questions that might have been asked. <…> [2: 20–21].

(5)Letter of sympathy is sent to a friend who is ill or to someone who has had trouble or disappointment. The letter should be tactful and fill of understanding.

A letter of condolence should be written as soon as you bear the sad news. A sample letter is provided in the corresponding section [2: 185].

(6)The fact that RP and approximations to it are easily understood almost everywhere in the English-speaking world does not mean that RP is used by a majority of English-speaking people. On the contrary, it is used by a rather small minority. There exist countries other ways of pronouncing English, some of them being used by large communities. Whether broadcasting will in the long run alter this state of things remains to be seen.

I would add here that I do not regard RP as intrinsically “better” or more “beautiful” that any other form of pronunciation <…>

[34: XVIII: 141].

Задание 3. Определите грамматический тип языковых еди- ниц, обеспечивающих дискурсивную связь в предлагаемых ниже примерах.

(1)It will be the first time in series’ history that a judge and a professional dancer have been related.

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