9. ELECTRICITY

(862 kilogrammes) of CO2/MWh for large generators and 2 000 pounds (907 kilogrammes) for smaller generators, which would not require CCS.

Beyond CO2, the EPA also reviewed existing regulations on the power sector for other pollutants, including nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and mercury. These regulations are primarily designed to combat fine particulate matter that contribute to smog, and raise the costs for coal-fired generation relative to other sources. While the EPA decided not to revisit NOx and SO2 regulations, in December 2018, it proposed a revised Supplemental Cost Finding for the Mercury and Air Toxics Standard, which would not change implementation of the existing rule, but would limit future regulatory action on hazardous air pollutants under Section 112 of the Clean Air Act. The EPA also finalised its revision of the 2015 coal ash rule for coal plants, which governs how power plants manage coal ash waste from burning coal. The new rule relaxes requirements for plant operators and gives states and the industry more flexibility in waste management.

State-level clean energy policies

Renewable portfolio standards

A number of US states have in place renewable portfolio standards (RPS), which require retail electricity providers to source a certain share of supply from qualified renewable sources. While emissions reduction goals are a driver of state RPS policies, they are also enacted to harness local energy resources, diversify the fuel mix and support local economic activity. Twenty-nine states plus the District of Columbia currently have mandatory RPS policies in place (eight states have voluntary targets), which have been an important driver of renewables expansions in the United States (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 2019). RPS plans have been particularly important in driving renewable energy growth in the Northeast, Mid-Atlantic and West.

Since their adoption, many states have raised their RPS targets to encourage more uptake of renewables. More recently, in 2019, several states made significant changes to strengthen their RPS programmes, including Colorado, District of Columbia, Maryland, Maine, New Mexico, Nevada, New York and Washington. California, Hawaii, New York and Washington have the most ambitious legislated targets; they require that 100% of electricity come from clean sources by 2045 (2040, in the case of New York), with Hawaii’s policy specifically requiring 100% from renewables (Utility Dive, 2019b). New Jersey’s governor signed an executive order in 2018 for a 100% clean energy (renewables and nuclear) target by 2050. In January 2019, the District of Columbia increased its RPS target to 100% by 2032, while Nevada in April 2019 passed legislation that targets 100% of carbon-free electricity by 2050.

Table 9.2 RPS across US states

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Source: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (2019), U.S. Renewables Portfolio Standards: 2019 Annual Status Update, http://eta-publications.lbl.gov/sites/default/files/rps_annual_status_update-2019_edition.pdf.

Zero-emissions credits

In addition to renewables targets, a few states have also provided support to nuclear power in the form of zero-emissions credits (ZECs). Though nuclear power has accounted for roughly a fifth of US electricity generation in recent history, competition from low-cost natural gas and renewables, combined with mounting costs for nuclear plant upgrades, is presenting challenges for both portions of the existing fleet of nuclear plants and new projects. Viewed by certain states as a critical source of baseload zeroemissions power, dwindling nuclear capacity – if not replaced by renewables – will result in growing emissions from the electricity sector. As a result, some states facing nuclear closures have intervened to keep plants in service (also see Chapter 10, “Nuclear”). Most notably, in 2016, New York and Illinois enacted policies that allow nuclear plants to qualify for ZECs that help the states meet their clean energy standards. In New York, the policy provided support to three nuclear plants – the James A. Fitzpatrick, Nine Mile Point and Ginna plants – while the Three Mile Island nuclear facility is still slated for

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ENERGY SECURITY

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