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Файл:Основы реферирования и аннотирования научной английской литературы. Часть 1. Учебно-методическое пособие
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- ask questions that require a detailed reply (as opposed to those
that can be answered with «yes» or «no»),
- put questions in a positive way (e. g.: «Where were you that
day?» rather than
«You were at the scene of the event, weren’t you?»
The Role of Sport and Adapted Physical Activity for People with
Disabilities.
Sport can play a key role in the lives and communities of people
with disabilities, the same as it can for people without a disability.
Sport encompasses all forms of physical activity and includes play,
exercise, recreation, organised, casual or competitive sport and
indigenous sport or games that contribute to physical fitness, mental
well-being and social interaction. There is a wealth of evidence to
support participation in sport and physical activity for people with a
disability concerning trends, barriers and benefits of participation.
Over the past three decades, research efforts have developed
significantly in the area of disability sport and adapted physical
activity. Numerous studies have revealed that physical activity and
sport participation result in improved functional status and quality of
life among people with selected disabilities.
Scientific research has been conducted across disability groups
that reveal participation in sport and physical activity leads to
improved levels of physical health and well-being.
Sport and physical activity has also been shown to improve physical
fitness and general mood in psychiatric patients with depressive and
anxiety disorders. Additionally, sport and physical activity has been
linked to improvements in self-confidence, social awareness and selfesteem and can contribute to empowerment of people with disabilities.
In developing countries, people with a disability often face additional
barriers to participation in sport and society and these may include for example, complex issues including attitudes towards disability, traditional
and religious beliefs, physical education systems, and access to sporting
infrastructure including services, facilities and equipment.
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Integration and inclusion of people with disabilities in mainstream
sport has been a key focus in recent decades and has created new
opportunities for participation and competition. On a larger scale,
participation in disability sport also contributes to nation building and
national identity and can also promote rehabilitation of people with
disabilities following natural and man-made disasters.
People with a disability in developing countries face major barriers
that limit their access to and participation in sport and physical activity.
Within a development context, these barriers impact on both: (i) building
activity pathways for people with disabilities and (ii) using sport and
physical activity programs to reach wider development goals.
The World Health Organisation estimates that 650 million people
live with disabilities of various types, and the number is increasing due to
the rise of chronic diseases, injuries, car crashes, falls, violence and other
causes such as ageing. Of this total, 80 % live in low-income countries;
most are poor and have limited or no access to basic services, including
rehabilitation facilities.This rising incidence of disability, particularly in
developing countries has the potential to place further burdens on governments and health care systems. Sport can be a low-cost and effective
means to foster positive health and well-being, social inclusion and community building for people with a disability.
Themes in Disability Sport and Development. By Francis
Beaumon.
The earliest international competition that still exists today was
the first International Silent Games held in Paris in 1924. Two men
are credited with pioneering the first
International Silent Games, Mr Eugene Rubens-Alcais of France
and Mr Antoine Dresse of Belgium. Although the name of the games
changed periodically, a world games for the deaf was held every fours
since that time, except during World War II. Immediately at the end of
the war, however, deaf sport quickly resumed and the first winter
games took place in 1949 in Seefeld, Austria.
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World War II had a significant impact on the development of
disability sport and during the rehabilitation of injured war veterans,
the Paralympic Games were born. In 1944, Sir
Ludwig Guttmann organised a sports competition for World War
II veterans with spinal cord injury in Stoke Mandeville, England. By
1948 this had quickly developed into the first Stoke Mandeville
Games, which were the precursor to the Paralympic Games. In 1976,
the games expanded to include other disability groups and the first
Paralympic winter games were held in Sweden.
In June, 1962 Eunice Kennedy-Shriver started a summer day
camp for children and adults with intellectual disabilities at her home.
This rapidly developed into the first Special Olympics World Games
that took place in 1968 at Soldier Field in Chicago, USA.
The first winter games followed in Colorado, USA in 1977.
Since the 1970s the concept of organised multi-sport and multidisability games became popular and a number of regional games for
people with a disability also emerged. These include games such as
the Parapan American Games and the Far East and South Pacific
Games. Whilst there is limited historical and statistical evidence of the
participation of people with a disability in developing countries, in the
three largest international competitions – Deaflympics, Paralympic
Games and Special Olympics World Games, participation by
developing countries has seen the greatest improvement since 1990.
The language of disability sport differs in some parts of the world
and an overview of the latest definitions and terminology is provided.
Disability. Anyone in the community may experience disability at
some point in their lifetime. Disability is a normal part of the human
experience, and people with disabilities are part of all sectors of the
community: men, women, and children; indigenous and nonindigenous;
employers and employees; students and teachers; consumers and citizens.
There are numerous definitions of disability and the debate
surrounding appropriate definitions of disability have evolved over time.
The World Health Organisation states that «disability (resulting from im-
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pairment) is a restriction or lack of ability to perform an activity in the
manner or within the range considered normal for a human being.»
The United Nations defines persons with disabilities (PWD) as
persons who have longterm physical, mental, intellectual or sensory
impairments, which, in interaction with various barriers may hinder their
full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others.
Statistics on disability are difficult to compare internationally and
also disability statistics do not always include the same definitions, types
or categories of disability. The length of time a person is deemed
‘disabled’ affects the way the statistical data is measured and interpreted.
Disability Sport. Disability sport is a term that refers to sport
designed for, or specifically practiced, by people with disabilities.
People with disabilities are also referred to as athletes with
disabilities. Deaf sport is distinguished from other groups of people
with disabilities and in some countries deaf people prefer not to label
deafness as a disability. The rules of deaf sport are not altered, only
instead of whistles and start guns, athletes and officials communicate
through signs, flags and lights. In many developing countries deafness
is still considered a disability.
Adapted Physical Activity (APA)
Adapted physical activity is the profession, the scholarly
discipline or field of knowledge, and the service delivery, advocacy
and empowerment systems that have been created specifically to make
healthy, enjoyable physical activity accessible to all and to assure
equal rights to sport instruction, coaching, medicine, recreation,
competition and performance of persons with disabilities. According
to the International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity (IFAPA),
Adapted Physical Activity (APA) means:
• A service-oriented profession.
• An academic specialisation or field of study.
• A cross disciplinary body of knowledge.
• An emerging discipline or subdiscipline.
• A philosophy or set of beliefs that guides practices.
• An attitude of acceptance that predisposes behaviours.
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• A dynamic system of interwoven theories and practices.
• A process and a product (i. e. programmes in which adaptation
occurs). Sport and Disability thematic profile (print version).
• An advocacy network for disability rights to physical activity of
participants with disability.
Terminology
The language that is used to describe people with disabilities has
an impact on impressions and attitudes. The consensus is to always
refer to the person first rather than the disability. For example, ‘person
with cerebral palsy’, ‘person with downs syndrome.’
It is widely recognised that using words such as ‘tragic,’
‘afflicted,’ ‘victim’ or ‘confined to a wheelchair’ should be avoided.
Words such as ‘uses a wheelchair’ are widely considered more
appropriate. It is important to use normal language and to recognise
that some terms are more accepted than others and the language of
disability can differ between countries.
TOPIC: Cycling – Tour de France. By Robert Herrick.
The Tour de France cycle race is the largest annual sporting event
in the world. Stretching to approximately 4,000 kilometers (2,500
miles) – the precise itinerary and distance vary from year to year – but
always including a voyage round France taking in the Pyrenees and
the Alps, it lasts for three weeks in July. The success of Irish and Colombian riders and of American Greg Lemond (c. 1960 –) as well as
several Australians and East Europeans has recently given the Tour a
remarkable global appeal, enhanced by live television film taken
mostly by camerapersons perched on the back of motorcycles close to
the riders. The best riders must be able to sprint, race against the
clock, and climb, day after day,week after week. The greatest of them
have become probably the most widely known sporting heroes in
20th-century continental Europe.
The development of the modern bicycle in the 1890s led to classic
races, such as the Paris-Bordeaux and the Paris- Roubaix. These were
promoted by the new sporting press, especially the daily sports and
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cycling paper, Le Vélo, which alienated one of its main backers, the
conservative Baron de Dion.He founded a rival paper, L’Auto, whose
first editor, Henri Desgranges, backed an idea to organize a race
around France. The magnitude and daring of the project captured
public attention. The first Tour was only two-thirds the length of later
races and was run day and night in six stages.Desgranges decided to
abandon the night stages and lengthen the race itself to go round the
whole country, taking in Alpine passes and what were little more than
rough tracks in the high Pyrenees 1644.
It was more than a race; it was an epic, a kind of heroic story through
which France would come to know itself. The «giants of the road,» as
they were known, passed through historic sites and scenes of great deeds
in the French past. As many as a third of the country would actually see
the race go by, organizing local festivities to coincide with it. Perhaps
more than any other great sporting event, the Tour is rooted in the
landscape and culture of its host country. As a showcase for France it is
superb, and tourist towns now pay vast sums to feature in the race.
The Tour is run in teams. The teams were originally sponsored by
bicycle manufacturers but are becoming increasingly beverage- and
fashion-based. Despite complex deals within and between teams, the
Tour is primarily about individual achievement.The main riding group (le
peleton) is preceded by a massive advertising caravan. The winner, supported by his «servants» (the domestiques or supporting riders), is the
best overall performer with the lowest aggregate time. There is a prize for
the best climber (the «King of the Mountains») and a coveted points prize
for the best sprinter as well as a host of other minor awards.
TOPIC: The Meaning of Alternative Tourism. By Richard
Lovelace.
In a paper that looked at the evolution of alternative tourism as a
concept, Gonsalves (1987) charted its beginnings as a defined concept
from the Manila International Workshop in 1980, although he noted
that concern over tourism had become public at the World Council of
Churches in 1969. In 1984 in Chiangmai, Thailand, the 44 participants
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of The Ecumenical Coalition on Third World Tourism (ECTWT)
agreed that it was seen as a process that promotes a just form of travel
between members of different communities. It seeks to achieve mutual
understanding, solidarity, and equality amongst participants.
The ECTWT produced a resource book on alternative tourism and
promoted models and programs. Such models included.
• Brief contacts with local people
• Longer visits with host families and the community, and an in-
sight into local life
• Noncommercial learning options (study tours, work camps, ex-
change visits)
• Organisations or community groups in various countries con-
cerned about third world tourism, and
• Alternative tourist travel agents in host and sending nations
seeking to share rather than shield visitors from the destination’s
culture andproblems.
Gonsalves (1987) sees the ultimate test of these alternatives in
their ability to influence mainstream tourism. He cites an encouraging
sign, that of the adoption of the Tourism Bill of Rights and Tourism
Code by the World Tourism Organization in 1985 in response to the
Penang Code of Ethics. He concludes that, ‘travel, throughout history,
has been a means of education, cross-cultural communication and the
development of meaningful relationships. 1654
Alternative tourism considers these objectives still valid and
works towards these ends.’ He ended on an optimistic note, and was
positive about the course and intentions of alternative tourism, a
position that has more recently been subject to sceptical criticism by
other writers. For Cohen (1987), alternative tourism is not even a
single general concept, but composed of two principal conceptions.
First, it is seen as a reaction to modern consumerism, a countercultural response to mass tourism composed of such characters as the
adventurer, drifter, traveller, or those looking for spontaneity or
romantically searching for a lost paradise. He suggests that these types
occasionally create their own cultural enclaves involving drugs and
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sex, treating local people as oddities, and initiating a diminution of the
culture of hospitality amongst the host community.
There is also the incipient creation of an alternative tourism
‘establishment,’ which leads to a further reduction in difference between
alternative and mass tourism. Second, it is conceived as ‘concerned
alternative tourism,’ which is in essence a reaction to the exploitation of
the third world in which the notion of a ‘just’ tourism arises, furthering
mutual understanding and preventing environmental or cultural
degradation and exploitation. In this type of tourism small groups interact
with local people, and smallscale projects involving local consultation
and participation are the principal means of promotion.
Cazes (1989) was well aware of the ambiguity of the concept
‘alternative tourism’ and he likened it to the notion ‘integrated,’ which
has been described as a ‘miracle-word, a panacea concept and a
mythical term.’ However, he eventually provided guidelines that may
be applied to six different sectorial fields: 1. The tourist as an
individual: motivated through original aspiration, which may include
active tourism (rambling, trekking), exploring, encounter travel,
committed tourism (voluntary service overseas, archaeological digs),
and other self-sacrificing work. 2. The practitioners: they do not want
to be regarded as clients or consumers, and include backpackers,
drifters, long-distance travelers; overall a varied group. 3. The
journey’s destination: this may be an unexplored ‘virgin’ location and
often rests on an idealised vision of peasant societies that represent
‘authentic’ cultures. 4. The type of accommodation: ‘supplementary’
including camping, small local family hotels, holiday centres, village
inns, private rented homes, paying guests; the dominant theme is
microfacilities as opposed to massive hotels. 5. Travel organisers and
partners: especially the nonlucrative organisations (nongovernmental
organisations, mutual benefit societies), individual travel
organisations; marginal or underground. 6. The mode of insertion in
the host community: this involves a concerted effort to develop the
reception of tourists wherein discourse centres on integration
(economic, social, spatial, ecological, urban), local control, and auto
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development. A crucial factor is the prominence of the local system in
overseeing the tourism.1699.
Having critically analysed the sectorial fields, Cazes went on to
deconstruct the concept of mass tourism, seeing it as a myth that
represents the ‘other’ or ‘anti-other,’ a seat of harmful potentialities.
Thus, alternative tourism is in actuality a discourse on difference and
is fundamentally elitist. In fact, it becomes a total subversion of the
dominant models on three levels:
1. Values: the conditions of aspiration and motivations for the
journey.
2. Process: the quality of collaboration and partnership, cooperation and synergy between external operation and local system at different stages of the phenomenon.
3. Forms: social, spatial, ecological, and architectural forms are
all faithful to the guiding principles of integration based on local traditional patterns and workforce.
According to Cazes, there is no perfect example that epitomises
alternative tourism as described above, although the development of
Lower Casamance in Senegal comes close. Further, he admits that
there are dangers in idealising the concept and points to the risks of
‘ghettoizing’ areas and the ‘museumification’ of sites of interest based
on an elitist interpretation.
The Scope of Ecotourism. By Thomas Carew.
Ecotourism is the sector of the international tourism industry that
has shown the fastest growth since the mid-1990s. The value of this
sector to the economy of a developing country like Ecuador is
significant, but difficult to measure with any precision. According to
the Travel Industry Association of America, 83 per cent of US tourists
are prepared to spend more with environmentally responsible
companies (Szuchman, 2001). Tour operators in South America are
only too ready to add the eco-label to their products to attract tourists
concerned about environmental issues, but in practice few hotels meet
recognized eco-certification standards. There is no generally accepted
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definition of ecotourism, but it is more than just naturebased travel,
and most destinations are far from being uninhabited wilderness.
Wherever there are local communities, the indigenous people
should gain longterm economic benefits from such tourism rather than
being excluded, as has too often been the case in the national parks and
game reserves of Africa, for example. Ecotourism should accept the
resource as it is, with the understanding that this may limit the number of
visits over a given period, and promote ethical responsibilities and
behaviour in the actions of all those involved. If we apply ecotourism to
Leiper´s model of a tourism system, the touristgenerating area – for
example, the UK – has a deficit of wildlife resources and accounts for
much of the demand, whereas Ecuador has an abundant supply,
including many unique species of plants and animals. 1548.
In the generating area the ecotourist will be motivated by attitudes
of ‘responsible consumption’ towards nature-based products and will
be educated to an above-average level. Many individual tourists will
be far from wealthy (although they may be perceived as such by the
host community), and for them it is likely to be the ‘holiday of a
lifetime’, involving months of preparation – the anticipation phase of
the trip – as well as recollection of the experience to other potential
tourists long after their return to their country of origin. In the
destination area, nature will be the main attraction, while the ancillary
services (accommodation, catering and guiding) should be well
managed and ‘environmentally friendly’. Participation in a learning
experience is the primary objective of the trip, while shopping, nighttime entertainment and recreation facilities are of less concern than is
the case for other types of tourism. In the transit zone, where the
tourists’ journeys take place, the ecotourist would ideally seek locally
owned transport operators and non-polluting modes of transport. This
might be an option for internal travel, from, say, the tourist’s base on
arrival in the destination country to the national park or other
protected areas that are to be visited.
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