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Файл:Основы реферирования и аннотирования научной английской литературы. Часть 1. Учебно-методическое пособие
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art of war, his raison d'être. He displayed his prowess before lords,
ladies, and commoners and profited not only from valuable prizes but
also from ransoms exacted from the losers. Between the 12th and the
16th centuries, the dangerously wild free-for-all of the early
tournament evolved into dramatic presentations of courtly life in
which elaborate pageantry and allegorical display quite overshadowed
the frequently inept jousts. Some danger remained even amid the
display. At one of the last great tournaments, in 1559, Henry II of
France was mortally wounded by a lance blow.
Peasant women participated freely in the ball games and footraces
of medieval times, and aristocratic ladies hunted and kept falcons, but
middle-class women contented themselves with spectatorship. Even
so, they were more active than their contemporaries in Heian Japan
during the 8th to the 12th century. Encumbered by many-layered
robes and sequestered in their homes, the Japanese ladies were unable
to do more than peep from behind their screens at the courtiers'
mounted archery contests.
Deeper. By Thomas Dekker.
The Latin words «Citius, Altius, Fortius» have been used as
the Olympic motto since the Modern Olympics started in 1894. In
English, we translate that motto into «Swifter, Higher, Stronger».
Now, with the possibility of adding «Extreme Sports», popular
competitive events that test the limits of human endurance and talents in ways not thought of in 1894, the current Olympic ’s organizers may also have to rethink their motto.
Extreme Free Diving (EFD) is a sport that is growing in
participants worldwide and is being discussed as a possible
Olympic event. If accepted into the Olympics, EFD could make the
Olympic’s organizers think about adding a new Latin term into the
motto that we could translate as «Deeper».
Most of us think of deep water diving as the use of snorkels,
masks, and fins to help us dive down beneath the surface of the water.
Then there is scuba diving. Scuba divers wear wet suits made out of
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material to protect against the cold; they need oxygen and other
equipment that enable them to safely breathe while traveling deep
beneath the surface of the sea. For those with the courage and
opportunity to attend the required classes and certification process to
scuba dive and have actually entered the deep and swum with the fish
and coral, scuba diving is an extremely gratifying experience. But is it
the ultimate underwater extreme sport for those who like to live on the
edge? When scuba diving is compared to Extreme Diving, diving
without a tank of oxygen deeper and farther from the surface than anyone had imagined it would be possible to go, scuba diving seems a
little less «Extreme». Extreme Free Diving has become very competitive and is exploding in popularity with «extreme» divers wherever
athletes live near a sea.
The first official European record for Extreme Free Diving was
recorded in 1911 when Greek Yorgos Haggi Statti descended to the depth
of 253 feet, almost the length of a football field. He dove without a mask,
fins, or an oxygen tank. He just dove. His record stood for many years until the modern «professional» EFDs began to dive even deeper.
Today, EFDs sink to depths approaching 400 feet, using weights
to help them descend vertically into the big blue depths of cold and
darkness that surround the earth. Free divers like Italian Umberto
Pelizzari and Cuban Pipin Ferreras frequently break world records by
diving without the use of wet suits, fins, or oxygen tanks. Extreme
Free Diving is truly a breathtaking sport. One day adding the word
«Deeper» to the Olympic motto of «Swifter, Higher, Stronger» looks
like a sure bet. The legendary Yorgos Haggi Statti would wipe water
from his eyes, smile, and nod in approval.
Effective Teaching Techniques. By John Fletcher.
The most consistently identified teacher effectiveness variable is
time on task. That is, the more time that students spend learning
specific academic content, the better they will learn it. Distinction is
made between allocated time on task (the time that teachers allocate to
particular instructional activities) and engaged time on task (the time
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that students actually spend engaged in instruction). Although no
consistent relation has been seen between allocated time on task and
academic achievement, research has demonstrated that engaged time
on task is positively related to academic achievement.
Strategies for maximizing engaged time on task have been
identified and include effectively managing transitions, avoiding
digressions and other irrelevant verbalizations, and managing
classroom behavior. Sometimes, teachers can improve studentengaged time on task by examining the amount of allocated time for
class and monitoring their own teacher behaviors more closely. For
example, teachers may find that they start classes 5 minutes late, end
classes 5 minutes early, stop during the middle of class to search for
relevant instructional materials, and stop to manage inappropriate
classroom behaviors. Once such target areas are identified, teachers can
design strategies to improve each area that will result in increasing the
amount of student-engaged time on task during classes.
Effective teacher presentations have also been identified.
Teachers maximize achievement when their presentations contain
elements such as structure of lesson, clarity of teacher presentation,
redundancy in emphasizing important concepts, and enthusiasm.
Structure includes enlisting students’ attention, providing a lesson
overview that includes lesson objectives, providing outlines of the
lesson and indicating when transitional points occur, and
summarizing and reviewing key points as the lesson proceeds. It is
important that students be made aware of the structure and
objectives of the lesson so that they will know what is to be
accomplished and how it will be accomplished. For example,
teachers who begin with statements indicating the order of the learning activities (e. g., «First, we will...», «Second, we will be…», «Finally, we will…») provide the structure for the lesson for all students. Clarity includes presenting clearly and directly to the point of
the lesson, avoiding vague or unfamiliar terminology, and providing
concrete understandable examples. All teacher dialogue should be
directly pertinent to the objective of the lesson.
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Redundancy does not refer to unnecessary repetition; rather, it
refers to reemphasis and restating of the key elements of a lesson,
particularly significant concepts and rules. Redundancy refers to the
provision of multiple opportunities to practice learning newly
presented content. Additional practice opportunities can vary in format and length given that the goal is to provide students with many
chances to practice learning new information.
Sport or Theater? By Francis Beaumon.
While a complex, rapidly developing sport may be expected to
generate many internal problems, synchro’s main controversy, «sport
or theater,» is generated externally, by media that are unwilling to
consider as «sport» anything not meeting the «swifter, higher, stronger» standard. But even Sports Illustrated, despite normally less than
flattering reviews, admitted in its report on the 1984 Los Angeles
Olympics, «Synchronized swimmers may look like cupcakes, but
they’re tough cookies, half the routine is performed upside down in a
pool.»Its water-show beginnings still haunt it. The idea that water
ballet is show, while synchronized swimming is sport, has been hard
to sell to swimming officials, the public, and the media. Its acceptance
into the Olympic Games came only after Lord Killanin, then chair of
the International Olympic Committee, saw it for himself at the third
World Aquatic Championships. «I am very impressed. I saw
synchronized swimming for the first time today. It is a very elegant
sport.» Synchro enjoys more popularity and acceptance as a sport in
parts of the world outside the United States. In every Olympic
competition, 1984 through 1996, it has been one of the first sports to
sell out all audience tickets. Another issue is male participation.
Interestingly, at the turn of the century competitions in the equivalent of
figures were for males. Then the beautiful spectaculars of aquacades and
films accented the female attraction. Early U.S. competitions included
male championships, but they were never popular. Neither U.S. nor
international rules prohibit male participation except for the Olympic
Games and the World Aquatic Championships.Presently, male
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participation is greater in Europe than in the United States and Canada.
Indeed, in 1991, the French national champion duet was a mixed pair
and a junior male qualified, in 1996, to be part of the U.S.National
Junior Team and will compete in competitions that allow males. Men are
included in the U.S. masters program.
Sports Science and Technology. By Beaumont Fletcher.
The discipline of sports science in medicine and technology is a
combination of biomechanics, kinesiology, and anatomy. Within these
parts, sports science dates back to Aristotle and Archimedes, when
sport was an integral part of Roman and Greek life and inspired a
fascination with the mechanics of the human body. By the twentieth
century, sports science also began to include varying disciplines such
as engineering, polymer science, psychology, and psychiatry, and
performance-enhancing pharmaceuticals inspired by high-stakes
competition. Today, the business of sports equipment – from running
shoes to stair machines – is a multibillion dollar industry based on the
continuing evolution of sports science. As a regular to Gladiator
competitions and a physician to the athletes, the second century AD
Greek Galen laid out the basic motor functions of the human body. He
identified the processes of muscle contraction and the influence of the
mind – or «animal spirits» as he called it – on the performance of the
body. Isaac Newton’s basic theories of scientific reasoning, specifically
the study of modern dynamics, laid the groundwork for understanding
the relationship between forces and their effects, based on his laws of
rest and movement published in Principia Mathematica Philosophiae
Naturalis. Not until Leonardo da Vinci studied the structure of the full
human body were the specific mechanics necessary for simple movements grasped – from walking and sitting to jumping and sprinting.
From that time, interested physicians, engineers, and scientists have
pursued elements of biomechanics and kinesiology.
By 1865, Gullaume Benjamin Amand Duchenne published
Physiologie des Mouvements, which identified each individual muscle in
relation to its range of movement, making it the basis of most sports
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science work today. Twenty years later, Etienne-Jules Marey studied the
motion of humans and animals through photography, publishing his
groundbreaking work, Le Mouvement, which examined, frame by
photographic frame, the intricate interaction of nerves, muscle, and bone.
With the onset of World War I, an interest in biomechanics
swelled, though under unfortunate and sometimes inhumane
circumstances: Analysis of soldiers on the march and of prosthesis for
amputees and the exhaustive study of prisoners of war and
concentration camp prisoners all furthered the understanding of
biomechanics and kinesiology. In particular, Frenchman Jules Amar,
evaluated the human gait and the task performances of World War I
veterans. He employed force and motion measurement techniques to
help develop prosthetic limbs. Further research in this subcategory of
kinesiology led to studying movement in three dimensions, which led
to mathematical analysis of the range of joint forces, movements, and
the elements of muscle strain and force against bone and ligaments.
The invention of the ergograph by Angelo Mosso in 1884 assisted
greatly in further analysis of human movement in the first half of the
twentieth century and evolved into several specialized forms to study
very specific muscular functions in the human body. In general, the
study of ergonomics as part of the Industrial Age push to better human
work performance influenced the development of specialized sports
equipment. Track shoes, for example, were designed to allow the foot
a «natural» range of motion by using soft leather and a snug fit.
Child protection. By Robert Herrick.
Professionals. All individuals involved in sports activities with
children and young people have a responsibility to safeguard their
welfare. The majority of children who participate in sport do so in a
safe and positive atmosphere with the support and encouragement of
those involved with the sport. However a number of children do not
have a positive experience and sport like other aspects of society now
recognises the need to guard against individuals who may abuse their
position in a sport. An increasing number of children and older
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athletes are now speaking out about their experiences of abuse and
those involved in this field are beginning build up a clearer picture of
the nature and extent of abuse in sport. There are a number of steps
you can take to promote the welfare of the children and young people
involved in sport. Within this section you will find advice and
information about developing good practice in relation to child
protection. You should also consider contacting the governing body of
your sport or your professional body who may have produced a child
protection policy and detailed guidance about how to respond to
concerns. What is abuse? Child Abuse is any form of physical,
emotional or sexual mistreatment or lack of care that leads to injury or
harm. It commonly occurs within a relationship of trust or
responsibility and represents an abuse of power or a breach of trust.
Abuse can happen to a child regardless of their age, gender, race or
ability. Abuse and Neglect Somebody may abuse or neglect a child by
inflicting harm, or by failing to act to prevent harm. Children may be
abused in a family or in an institutional or community setting by those
known to them or, more rarely, by a stranger.
Sports and Nationalism. By Richard Lovelace.
In the US, the Olympics have been the most obvious site for the
intersection of sports and nationalism. Until recently, therefore, the
major compensation that could be derived from being an Olympian,
given the strictures associated with maintaining status as an amateur,
came from the visibility afforded those who represented their country
preferably with distinction. When most Americans played football and
baseball, games which had only a limited international dimension,
sporting outlets for nationalist and patriotic fervor were confined to
the Olympics. Television commentators were acutely aware of this
and their coverage of the Olympics focused fundamentally on
highlighting American successes. Moreover, nationalist intensity
associated with the Olympics was exacerbated by Cold-War rivalries.
Americans as the leader of the «Free World» competed with East
Germany and the Soviet Union, the communist powerhouses.
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African American track stars, boxers and college basketball
players were able, at least in small measure, to reap the benefits of
favorable attitudes deriving from their goldmedal winning
performances. Many of the athletes also celebrated their
«Americanness,» often taking victory laps or in some way wrapping
themselves in the American flag. Other black athletes, especially at
the 1968 Mexico and 1972 Munich Olympics, used the platform to
make statements of protest against racial policies in the United States.
Many of the memorable moments in Olympic sports, then, have
been those that could be framed in reference to nationalism. The
Soviet Union’s disputed victory at the 1972 Munich Olympics against
a highly favored American basketball team (the game being decided
on a very controversial last-second play) was cause for dismay. Eight
years later, at the winter games in Lake Placid, New York, during the
Iran hostage crisis, the success of the US hockey team’s college players against the Soviet «machine» gave rise to widespread euphoria. In
gymnastics, the five-medal performance of Mary Lou Retton at the
1984 Los Angeles games (clad in new flag-motif leotards) made her
the darling of games tainted by a Soviet boycott.
This identification between nationalism and the Olympics has
diminished somewhat in recent years. In part this is due to the end of
Cold-War rivalries, but it is also a result of the growing
professionalism of the Olympics. The athletes no longer need to
maintain amateur status and so no longer pin all their hopes on their
Olympic performances. Moreover, some of the competitiveness has
been undermined by the inclusion of professionals in recent games.
Instead of a team of American basketball players drawn from the
NCAA, the US now fields «dream teams» that pull in stars exclusively
from the NBA. The winner of the gold medal is now a foregone
conclusion and many of the games in which the United States plays
end up being humiliating for the other team. In other Olympic sports,
nationalist sentiment is on the rise. This is particularly so for women’s
soccer, where Americans dominate but maintain strong rivalries with
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countries like Brazil and China, and patriotic feelings feed on the other major arena of sporting nationalism – soccer’s world cups.
TOPIC: TEACHING. By Thomas Carew.
It is the profession of those who give instruction, especially in an
elementary or a secondary school or in a university.
Measured in terms of its members, teaching is the world's largest
profession. In the late 20th century it was estimated that there were
30,000,000 teachers throughout the world. Though their roles and
functions vary from country to country, the variations among teachers
are generally greater within a country than they are between countries.
Because the nature of the activities that constitute teaching depends
more on the age of the persons being taught than on any other one
thing, it is useful to recognize three subgroups of teachers: primaryschool, or elementary-school, teachers; secondary-school teachers;
and university teachers. Elementary-school teachers are, by far, the
most numerous worldwide, making up nearly half of all teachers in
some developed countries and three-fourths or more in developing
countries. Teachers at the university level are the smallest group.
The entire teaching corps, wherever its members may be located,
shares most of the criteria of a profession, namely (1) a process of formal training, (2) a body of specialized knowledge, (3) a procedure for
certifying, or validating, membership in the profession, and (4) a set of
standards of performance – intellectual, practical, and ethical – that is
defined and enforced by members of the profession. Teaching young
children and even adolescents could hardly have been called a
profession anywhere in the world before the 20th century. It was, instead, an art or a craft in which the relatively young and untrained women and men who held most of the teaching positions «kept school» or
«heard lessons» because they had been better-than-average pupils themselves. They had learned the art solely by observing and imitating their
own teachers. Only university professors and possibly a few teachers of
elite secondary schools would have merited being called members of a
profession in the sense that medical doctors, lawyers, or priests were
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professionals; in some countries even today primary-school teachers
may accurately be described as semiprofessionals. The dividing line is
unprecise. It is useful, therefore, to consider the following questions: (1)
What is the status of the profession? (2) What kinds of work are done?
(3) How is the profession organized?
The teacher and the learner. By John Dryden.
In the act of teaching there are two parties (the teacher and the
taught) who work together in some program (the subject matter)
designed to modify the learners' behaviour and experience in some way.
It is necessary to begin, therefore, with observations about the learner,
the teacher, and the subject matter and then to consider the significance
of group life and the school. It will then be possible to consider the
factors and theories involved in modifying a person's behaviour and
understanding. These include theories of learning in education, of school
and class organization, and of instructional media.
A child enters school with little if any attainment in written
expression and leaves it capable of learning much from human culture. It
was thought originally that this progress was just a matter of learning,
memorizing, associating, and practicing. The work of psychologists has
revealed, however, that the growth of the pupil's intellectual powers
must include a large element of development through different phases,
beginning with simple sensorimotor coordination; going on to the
beginnings of symbolizing, helped by the growth of language and play;
and then on to logical thought, provided the material is concrete; and,
finally, in midadolescence, on to the power to examine problems
comprehensively, to grasp their formal structure, and to evoke
explanation. In his emotional life, the child progresses from direct,
immediate, uninhibited reactions to more complex, less direct, and more
circumspect responses. The physical growth of the child is so obvious as
to need no comment. Any attempt to educate the child intellectually and
emotionally and for action must take account of these characteristics.
Education must pace development, not follow it and not ignore it. The
components in the child's overall educational growth are physical and
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