Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Основы реферирования и аннотирования научной английской литературы. Часть 1. Учебно-методическое пособие
.pdf
mental maturation, experience, formal teaching through language, and
an urge in the learner to resolve discrepancies, anomalies, and
dissonances in his experience.
What is required of a teacher is that he enjoys and be capable of
sharing work programs with children, designed to modify their
behaviour and experience. This means making relevant experience
available to the student at the right time. The teacher must be mature,
have humour with a sense of status, be firm yet unruffled, and be
sympathetic but not overpersonal. With large classes, the teacher
becomes a leader of a group, providing stimulating learning situations.
General objectives of teaching. By William Wycherley.
The classification of the general objectives of teaching in terms of
school subject matter is not sufficient to explain the ultimate ends of
education. These include, essentially, the promotion of a wellintegrated person capable of taking a responsible, active role in society. With such a purpose in mind, one may achieve more insight by
choosing a psychological analysis of the objectives into the attainment
of intellectual abilities and social insights (cognition), the learning of
practical active skills (psychomotor learning), and the development of
emotions, attitudes, and values (affective learning).
Cognitive growth begins at the level of the infant school, with the
acquisition of early language and numerical capabilities, and
continues increasingly to dominate education to the secondary and
higher levels. But the learner is more than an enlarging reservoir of
information. With this acquisition goes a growing power to generalize,
abstract, infer, interpret, explain, apply, and create. Cognitive training
produces a thinker–observer aware of the modes of thought and
judgment making up human intellectual activity. In the final stages,
the teacher aims at a thinker, critic, organizer, and creator.
In the development of psychomotor learning, the teacher is
concerned with the promotion of coordinated skills and their creative
use. Instruction begins with the acts of handwriting and plastic art
play, characteristic of earlier years of schooling. It includes painting,
41
games, workshop skills, and practical science. It has a high prestige
value among the pupils themselves and the wider community.
The permeation of emotional learning throughout the whole
educative process is not always obvious, in part because very often it
is brought about incidentally. Teachers may be self-conscious and
self-critical about the deliberate inculcation of emotional responses,
which will provide the energy and a mainspring of social life. The
acquisition and application of values and attitudes are most marked by
the time of adolescence and dominate the general life of the young
individual. Theoretical, aesthetic, social, economic, political,
hedonistic, and religious values pervade the school curriculum.
Literature, art, the humanities, and religious teaching are all directly
involved, and the teaching of science and mathematics can bring about
a positive attitude toward cognitive and theoretical values.
A person's emotional structure is the pattern of his values and
attitudes. Under the influence of instruction and experience, this structure
shows three kinds of change. First, the pupil learns to select those
situations and problems to which he will make appropriate emotional
responses. Second, in general, an increasing range of situations includes
happenings more remote from the learner. At first, emotions are aroused
by situations directly affecting the child, but as he becomes more mature
he is increasingly involved in affairs and causes far removed from his
own personal life. Third, his repertoire of emotional responses gradually
becomes less immediate, expressive, and linked with physical activity.
TOPIC: MARTIAL ARTS. Judo history. By George Etherege,
James Thomson.
Judo as a martial art came into existence in 1882 being derived
from the much older techniques of attack and defence called ju-jitsu.
Before the advent of judo or more properly Kodokan Judo there
existed some twenty independent ju-jitsu schools. A young Japanese
man Jigoro Kano, wanting to be able to handle some bigger bullying
companions, decided to join one of the ju-jitsu schools. He studied the
techniques of various schools for several years. Finally in 1882 he
42
established his own which he called the Kodokan and instead of using
the word ju-jitsu used judo instead. One of the reasons for choosing a
different name for his school was that with the ordinance of 1871
forbidding Samurai to carry swords the martial arts fell into decline
and then disrepute. Some ju-jitsu experts of Kano's time were rogues
and bullies and ju-jitsu acquired a low reputation. Kano, not wishing
to inherit this, began his school with a new name. Kodokan judo was
not just a rehash of ju-jitsu techniques. Kano selected the good points
of each ju-jitsu school and with his own fresh ideas and innovations
turned an old martial art into a new system of physical culture and
mental training. There was much rivalry between the new Kodokan
school and the ju-jitsu men and four years after its foundation the
Kodokan had a public match with the top ju-jitsu school. It was an
overwhelming victory for judo with the Kodokan winning nearly every
match. The techniques of judo have slowly been streamlined and
modified over the years with some new ones being added and old ones
on account of their inefficiency or danger being eliminated. With judo
becoming an international sport during the last ten years rules governing
contests have been formulated to make it safe for competition. Nevertheless, the essence of judo – throws, strangles, joint-locks and holddowns – makes it an excellent system of self-defence and attack.
The Kodokan was founded in 1882 by the late Prof. Kano who
himself had established Judo. Judo was derived from Jujitsu which had
many names and schools. Jujitsu is an art for either attacking others or
defending oneself with nothing but one's own body. Prof. Kano adopted
the superlative parts of all the Jujitsu schools, got rid of precarious parts,
and established the new Kodokan Judo based on his own insight and
arrangement. It started with only nine disciples and a twelve-mat dojo.
The Kodokan Judo was recognized in a few years to be excellent since
its students overwhelmed the Jujitsu athletes at the Police Bujitsu
Contest. This really was the first step for its future rapid progress.
Prof. Kano promoted judo as a physical exercise from a wide
national point of view. Proceeding with the organization of the
Kodokan and enacting the regulations of Judo, he became the first
43
Asian member of the International Olympic Committee in 1909 and
worked for the spread of Judo world-wide. Judo became an official
event in the Olympic Games of 1964, backed by Judo fans and sport
promoters all over the world. It is now a very popular sport almost
anywhere in the world.
Judo", which is now exercised in many countries of the world, is
the very Kodokan Judo, created in 1882 by Prof. Jigoro Kano. It is
clearly stated in the Article 1 of International Judo Federation (IJF)
statutes, «IJF recognizes 'Judo' which was created by Jigoro Kano».
The religious disagreements in teaching Eastern fighting arts.
By George Etherege, James Thomson.
The world view of an eastern master is based on one of the domi-
nating Buddhism branches. The most important part of preparing a
fighter is the psychological training, namely teaching the ways of
controlling one's psychics. And in this important part of training the
main contradictions are found. The East has undoubtedly achieved
great results in self-control and hypnosis. And the whole technique of
psychoregulation either was taken from or was itself the religious
practice. How does it concern us?
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to come to Japan. Being
the Pope missionaries, they were actively turning Japanese pagans into
Catholics. And what is interesting, in the beginning of the process the
Portugal emissaries were given a favourable reception by the local
princes. But then, in no time for history, the Christianity in Japan was
almost completely destroyed by the fire of local wars, and the traditional
Buddhism recovered its dominating position. Why had the samurais
taken the Christianity and then let it go away so easily? The fact is that
the stereotype of religiosity of Japanese samurais is not quite right. The
real samurai honoured his ancestors more than he honoured Buddha, and
respected his family sword more than he respected the temple. While
reading «The Hagakure» one can realize the reasons for that. The whole
life of a samurai was filled with striving for an honest death, and the
duty and courage of a soldier weho the se-stylr in Japan built on
44
Buddhism, not on Catholicism, dictated people to return to their
ancestors' beliefs. Moreover, the generations of warlike samurais were
the visual ps above everything: «If gods have not heard my prayers only
because there is my enemy's blood on me, I have nothing to do with it
and I will pray in spite of this blood». («The Hagakure»)
This well-balanced attitude towards religion gave the chance to
the Japanese Catholic experiment, but the whole life-style in Japan
built on Buddhism, not on Catholicism, dictated people to return to
their ancestors' beliefs. Moreover, the generations of warlike samurais
were the visual personification of the attitudes of a real Japanese.
Since that time the mankind has not invented any cold steel more
effective than the samurai sword, and there have not been more
effective warriors than samurais. This is a result of strong connection
between generations, of sound moral attitudes, and of ethical and
religious views. To summarize, the historical unity of the nation is the
guarantee of its further development.
TOPIC: HOCKEY. Ice hockey. By Edward Young.
Ice hockey, referred to simply as «hockey» in Canada and the
United States, is a team sport played on ice. It is one of the world's
fastest sports, with players on skates capable of going high speeds on
natural or artificial ice surfaces. The most prominent ice hockey
nations are Canada, Czech Republic, Finland, Russia, Slovakia,
Sweden and the United States. While there are 64 total members of
the International Ice Hockey Federation, those seven nations have
traditionally dominated the field for decades. Of the sixty medals
awarded in men's competition at the Olympic level from 1920 on, only
six did not go to one of those countries (or a former entity thereof,
such as Czechoslovakia or the Soviet Union) and only one such medal
was awarded above bronze.
Unsurprisingly, ice hockey's worldwide popularity is concentrated
primarily in locales cold enough for natural, long-term seasonal ice
cover. It is one of the four major North American professional sports,
represented by the National Hockey League (NHL) at the highest
45
level. It is the official national winter sport of Canada, where the game
enjoys immense popularity (lacrosse is Canada's national summer
sport). Tellingly, six of the thirty NHL franchises are based in Canada,
which has only a combined two teams in the three other professional
sports. Despite Canada having only about one-tenth of the population
of the United States, Canadians currently outnumber Americans in the
league by a ratio of almost three to one. Nevertheless, the sport is
comparably popular in certain regions of the United States, notably
the Northeast, the Upper Midwest, and Alaska.
While most of the countries mentioned above have their own
professional ice hockey league, the NHL is considered the world's
premier professional ice hockey league and attracts almost all of the
world's elite players. While Canadians and Americans rank first and
second, respectively, in NHL representation, about thirty percent of the
league's players are non-North Americans. The other five major hockey
powers occupy the third through seventh ranks of NHL representation.
History. By Edward Young.
The etymology of the word hockey is unknown. It may derive
from the Old French word hoquet, shepherd's crook, but it may also
derive from the Middle Dutch word hokkie which is the diminutive
of hok, meaning literally shack or doghouse but in popular use
meant goal.
The Scottish sport of shinty, and the closely-related Irish sport of
hurling are predecessors of ice hockey, played on a large field as
opposed to ice.
Proponents of Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada, as the birthplace of
hockey claim the game was named after an individual, as in 'Colonel
Hockey's game', and it is known that Scottish emigrants played shinty
in this area. Proponents of this theory point out that the surname
Hockey exists in the district surrounding Windsor.
The history of ice hockey is one of the most contested in all of
sports. The city of Montreal had been traditionally credited with being
the birthplace of hockey, but early paintings contest this claim; 16th-
46
century Dutch paintings show a number of townsfolk playing a
hockey-like game on a frozen canal.
Kingston, Ontario, and Windsor, Nova Scotia, also lay claim to its
origins for similar reasons. And many think that hockey began in
Virginia, the evidence of this was a post on a Williamsburg
Newspaper in colonial time that recorded a snow storm and recorded
hockey being played in Virginia.
By 1893, Winnipeg hockey players incorporated cricket pads to
better protect the goaltender's legs. They also introduced the «scoop»
shot, later known as the wrist shot.
When Great Britain conquered New France from France in 1763
(much of which would later become part of Canada), Scottish and
English soldiers used their knowledge of shinty and field hockey,
combining it with the physically aggressive aspects of what the
Mi'kmaq Aboriginal First Nation in Nova Scotia called
dehuntshigwa'es (lacrosse). As Canadian winters are long and harsh,
new winter sports were always welcomed. Using cheese cutters
strapped to their boots, both English- and French-speaking Canadians
played the game on frozen rivers, lakes, and ponds. Early paintings
show hockey being played in Nova Scotia, as well as in the state of
Virginia in the United States.
On March 3, 1875, the first organized indoor game was played in
Montreal, as recorded in the Montreal Gazette. In 1877, in order to
make some sense of the game, McGill students, James Creighton,
Henry Joseph, Richard F. Smith, W. F. Robertson and W. L. Murray,
invented seven ice hockey rules. Having an organized system in place,
the game became so popular that it was featured for the first time in
Montreal's annual Winter Carnival in 1883. In 1888, the governor
general of Canada, Lord Stanley of Preston (whose sons and daughter
were hockey enthusiasts), attended the Carnival and was so impressed
with the hockey spectacle that he thought there should be a
championship trophy for the best team. The Stanley Cup was first
awarded then to the champion amateur team in Canada, and continues
to be awarded today to the National Hockey League's championship
47
team. As an interesting historical footnote, one of Lord Stanley's sons
was instrumental in introducing ice hockey to the United Kingdom
and from there, to Europe at large.
Houghton, MI, located in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, was
the birthplace of professional ice hockey in the United States when the
Portage Lakers were formed in 1899.
The National Hockey League was formed in November of 1917,
when members of the former National Hockey Association were
engaged in a dispute with one of their fellow owners over insurance
proceeds. The NHA disbanded, and the new league began play in
December of that year.
On February 16, 2005, the NHL became the first major
professional team sport in North America to cancel an entire season
because of a labor dispute. Play resumed again in the fall of 2005.
One of the best places to learn about the history of ice hockey is
at the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto Canada. It is the official
museum for the NHL.
Hockey – an evolving game. When hockey began in the mid-1800's
it was very different from the game we know today. The seven players,
who won the Stanley Cup in 1905, would not recognize the game that
Pittsburgh and Detroit played in the 2009 finals. First they'd probably
wonder, what the 14 guys sitting on the bench are doing and why only six
players are on the ice. Then they'd likely ask, who, how, and why
someone has been painting lines on the ice. Finally, they'd like to know,
why Gonchar lifts his stick before shooting, why Guerin runs right into
his opponents, and how the puck magnet on Crosby's stick works.
Almost two hundred years of hockey have seen rule changes, new
skills, and more effective training methods revolutionize the game, in an
evolution that still continues. The latest contributions are the composite
sticks, the zero tolerance, and the removal of the red line. For every
change, there's been a visionary, who understood how to adjust the game
to benefit from the changes. Scotty Bowman's adjustments to the introduction of TV time outs – which allowed him to play his top players
48
more – are legendary. More recently, did MacTavish's and Laviolette's
shot-blocking tactics – when the NHL increased the distance between
the net and the blue line – change the defensive zone play. In similar
ways, does every alteration lead to adjustments, which over time leads to
an entirely different game. The ones who understand the evolution will
better foresee the next change, and are more likely to become the game's
next revolutionary visionaries.
TOPIC: Football Pools. By Thomas Gray, Robert Blair.
A system of sports betting based around the prediction of a
football game’s outcome. Although most professional football clubs
now run their own pools companies, most gamblers place their stakes
with one of three major companies: Littlewoods, Vernons and Zetters.
Littlewoods is the oldest of these, and the formation of their business
in 1923 became the cornerstone of the Littlewoods empire, which
went on to encompass high street shops and mail order catalogues.
Littlewoods became pools innovators, being the first company to
introduce a collector service in 1959, the Pools Panel (convened in
January 1963 to compensate for the number of matches postponed due
to bad weather) and the Australian pools in 1951. Dividends were at
first rather small, the first million pound pools winners being a
hospital syndicate in 1984, but payouts had been creeping up since the
1950s. The pools companies banded together in 1973 to introduce a
new game, ‘spot-the-ball’. This competition paid lower dividends than
the main pool, but 15 percent of the total raised was paid to the
Football Trust, an organization set up by the government and the
footballing authorities to fund the game at all levels. The pools
funding came to an end in 1996, when the companies complained of
lost earnings due to the introduction of the National Lottery.
The introduction of the Lottery affected the pools companies
greatly. Unhindered by prohibitive betting laws, the Lottery soon took
profits from the companies. Pleas were made to the Heritage Secretary
in November 1994, and within two months the pools companies had
won vital concessions: the minimum entry age was lowered to sixteen,
49
promotion and advertising on television and radio was allowed for the
first time, and first dividend payouts are allowed to ‘roll-over’, all in
line with legislation relating to the National Lottery. 1765
Further inequalities were removed in 1995, when the pools
betting duty was lowered from 37.5 percent to 32.5 percent. The pools
companies still felt aggrieved, as the Lottery only paid a duty of 12
percent, but in November 1995 Kenneth Clarke, then Chancellor of
the Exchequer, lowered the rate again to 27.5 percent, with a further
decrease of 1 percent if the pools companies paid this further amount
to both the Football Trust and the Foundation for Sport and the Arts.
Half-time betting was added to the pools companies arsenal against
the Lottery in 1996.
TOPIC: Sports acrobatic. By James Macpherson.
Sports acrobatics goes back a long way in China. Archaeological
finds show that handstands, somersaults, dives, rolls and pyramids
were popular among the people more than two thousand years ago. As
the movements were passed from generation to generation, they
gradually developed, then were adapted for stage performance,
creating a performing art with Chinese characteristics.
As an independent competitive sport, modern sports acrobatics is
still comparatively new in China. When the first national exhibition
was held in Beijing in 1956, there were only men's and women's
individual events, men's pairs and mixed pairs. National
championships have been held annually since 1957, and the sport is
now included in the official competition programme. The number of
competitive events has gradually been increased to match international
standards. Now the official programme includes men's and women's
individual exercises, men's and women's pairs, mixed pairs, women's
threesomes and men's foursomes, as in international competitions.
Through hard work and daring Chinese sports acrobats have
developed exercises with a high degree of difficulty, some of a type
rarely seen among acrobats in other countries. They include: for men's
individual events, double somersault with triple turn, straight body;
50
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]