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Файл:Основы реферирования и аннотирования научной английской литературы. Часть 1. Учебно-методическое пособие
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triple forward somersault; triple backward somersault; for men's pairs,
bottom man, kneeling, backward bend, arms wide apart and arm stand;
and top man, slow fall with legs apart and horizontal hang; for women's
pairs, handstand, pushup, half turn and pushup with body flat; for mixed
pairs, handstand, pushup, somersault and handstand; for women's
threesome, vertical column and horizontal hang; for men's foursome,
half vertical column on the shoulder, right-angle one-arm hang on the
head, slow rise, handstand and back to side horizontal hang.
The dance movements and musical accompaniment have also
been improved and developed in recent years. Along with ballet,
modern dance and foreign folk dance movements and corresponding
musical accompaniment, the Chinese acrobats have introduced
Chinese dance movements and music. A women's manoeuvre
executed by a Guangdong team is based on the flying apsarases in
the Dunhuang cave murals. Chinese classical dance movements and
music have also been used in the exercises. A men's manoeuvre
executed by a Shanghai team, for example, uses fighting stances
from traditional Beijing opera and musical accompaniment of gongs
and drums. These innovations are opening up new paths for the
development of sports acrobatics in China.
China joined the International Sports Acrobatics Federation in 1979.
The Chinese acrobats have acquired experience in international
competition, assimilated the strong points of their foreign counterparts
and made good progress. The Chinese sports acrobatic team made its
debut at the Fourth World Sports Acrobatics Championships held in
Poland in 1980 and won eleven bronze medals in the overall and
individual events. Chinese acrobats won four gold's, seven silvers and
eight bronzes at the Third World Cup Tournament the following year. At
the 1982 World Championships they took one gold medal, five silver
medals and six bronze medals. China reaped ten gold medals, eight
silver medals and one bronze medal at the Fourth World Cup
Tournament in 1983. By then the Chinese five-starred red flag had been
raised sixty-one times during world championships and tournaments.
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Chinese sports acrobatics is now in the top ranks at international
level and is practiced as a mass sport in many provinces and cities.
TOPIC: Gymnastics. History. By Thomas Chatterton.
The origin of gymnastics can be traced back to the ancient
civilisations of China, Persia, India and Greece.
Most of the current competitive exercises may be attributed to the
German, Jahn, but the ancient civilisations practised the sport. The
Chinese had mass displays of free exercises, as they do at present, and
both the Persians and the Indians followed a strict code of physical
exercise. But it was the Greeks who really started to modernise the sport.
The distinguished physician, Galen, provided some of the earliest
literature on the sport and showed how knowledgeable the Greeks
were about its fundamentals. Activities like rope-climbing were
included in the ancient Olympic Games and, with the rise of the
Roman Empire, the Greek method of physical culture spread.
Among the events the Romans introduced was the wooden horse on
which they practised mounting and dismounting. Most of the exercises
were used for military preparation, but when the ancient Olympic Games
were abolished the sport fell into decline for nearly 1,500 years.
It was revived initially by men like Muth, Salzman, and Ling. (1)
Muth’s book, «Gymnastics for Youth», is the first major work on the
subject, and Ling, a Swede, regulated a series of free exercises which
a number of countries adopted. But the man who made the major
contribution to the sport was Jahn. His invention of events like the
parallel bars and the rings and his routines for the horizontal bars
helped greatly with the modernisation of gymnastics. There was a
clash of views between Ling and Jahn, since the Swede felt that
gymnastics was an educational system while Jahn viewed it as a club
activity. Ling’s movements were more rhythmic and fluent while Jahn
gave more emphasis to strength movements.
Modern gymnastics is a mixture of both schools – the beauty of
the floor exercises routines being balanced by the rugged power
needed for the rings and parallel bars. But it is fair to say that Jahn
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was the more influential of the pair, for his Turnplatz, opened in
Berlin in 1811, was an open-air gymnasium which started the spread
of the sport throughout Europe. Clubs were founded in Britain and a
number of schools included physical training in their curriculum. A
major event in British gymnastics occurred in 1860 when the army
selected 12 NCO's (National Committee officials) and formed them
into the Army Gymnastic Staff, later the Army Physical Training
Corps. The Army, realising after the Crimean War that soldiers
needed to be fit, were in the forefront of the expansion of the sport in
Britain. The leading clubs joined in 1890 to form the Amateur
Gymnastic Association and the first championship was in 1896 – the
year of the first modern Olympic Games.
After World War II, and especially since the early 1960s,
gymnastics has grown phenomenally in the United States. Much of
this growth has been due to the greatly increased coverage of
gymnastics on television, and especially to the Olympic performances
of Olga Korbut in 1972 and Nadia Comaneci in 1976.
International gymnastics competition before World War II was
dominated by Western European countries. Except for the anomalous
1904 Games in St. Louis, Americans did not participate in Olympic
gymnastics until 1920. With the entrance of the Soviet Union into
Olympic competition in 1952 and the rise of Japan as a gymnastics
power, the picture changed radically. Over this period, men’s team
medals were won by the Soviet Union (10), Japan (9), East Germany
(5), China (2), Finland (2), and one each by the United States, Germany,
Hungary, Italy, and Switzerland. Fewer countries participated in
women’s gymnastics during this period and the Soviet Union was even
more dominant, winning the team gold medal in all ten Olympic Games
in which they participated (Romania won in 1984). Most individual
medals were won by the Soviet Union (39.4 per cent) and Japan (30.5
per cent), with others going to China (6.1 per cent), East Germany (4.5
per cent), the United States (3.7 per cent), and 13 other countries (all
European except for three medals to the two Koreas, for a total of 15.8
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per cent). In the 1996 Olympics Russia won the overall team gold and 5
individual medals; Belarus took 4.
In the 1984 Olympic Games 19 countries were represented (2 entries
are allowed per country), and Canada, Romania, and West Germany won
the gold, silver, and bronze all-around medals. In both 1988 and 1992, 23
countries were represented, and the Soviet Union (called the Unified
Team in 1992) won both the gold and bronze. In 1996 Spain won the
team gold, Bulgaria the silver, and Russia the bronze. Modern
Gymnastics World Championships have been held since 1963.
Rumba. By James Macpherson, Thomas Chatterton.
This had its origin with the African Negro slaves imported into
Cuba, whose dances emphasized the movements of the body rather
than the feet. The tune was considered less important than the
complex cross rhythms, being provided by a percussion of pots,
spoons, bottles, etc. (Raffe, 1964, 431).
It evolved in Havanna in the 19th century by combination with
the Contradanza (Sadie, 1980, 5/86). The name 'Rumba' possibly
derives from the term 'rumboso orquestra' which was used for a dance
band in 1807 (Sadie, 1980, 5/88), although in Spanish, the word
'rumbo' means 'route', 'rumba' means 'heap pile', and 'rhum' is of
course an intoxicating liquor popular in the Caribbean (Smith, 1971,
502), any of which might have been used descriptively when the
dance was being formed. The name has also been claimed to be
derived from the Spanish word for 'Carousel' (Morris, 1969, 1134).
The rural form of the Rumba in Cuba was described as a
pantomime of barnyard animals, and was an exhibition rather than a
participation dance (Ellfeldt, 1974, 59). The maintenance of steady
level shoulders while dancing was possibly derived from the way the
slaves moved while carrying heavy burdens (Rust, 1969, 105). The
step called the 'Cucaracha' was stomping on cockroaches. The 'Spot
Turn' was walking around the rim of a cartwheel (Rust, 1969, 105).
The popular Rumba tune 'La Paloma' was known in Cuba in 1866
(Sadie, 1980, 10/530).
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The Rumba was introduced into the U.S.A. in the 1930's as a
composite of this rural Rumba with the Guaracha, the Son, and the Cuban
Bolero (unrelated to the Spanish Bolero) (Ellfeldt, 1974, 59). It was
particularly popularised in 1935 by George Raft, who played the part of a
suave dancer who wins the heart of an heiress through dance, in the movie
'Rumba', although the male dancing was done mainly by Frank Veloz.
The British dance teacher Pierre Margolie visited Havanna in
1947 and decided that the Rumba was danced with the break step on
beat 2 of the bar, rather than on beat 1 as in the American Rumba.
This is not entirely true, as the 'beat' of the music is traditionally
determined by the rhythm of the Claves (two sticks being hit
together). The Claves are hit on half-beats numbers 1,4,7 in the first
bar of a two-bar phrase, and half-beats 3,5 of the second bar.
Counting full beats, these correspond to beat 1, the half beat before 3,
and beat 4 of the first bar, and beats 2 and 3 of the second bar. Ideally
one might dance 5 steps over the two bars to match the Clave beats.
But instead it was decided to dance only on one of the bars of the
Clave sequence. The American Rumba is danced on the first bar
Clave beat. Pierre decided to use the second bar, stepping on beats 2
and 3, and he added an extra step on beat 4 for no obvious reason. He
brought this back to Britain, together with many steps he learned
from Pepe Rivera in Havanna. These steps together with dancing the
break on beat 2 rather than beat 1, after many years of heated debate
in the 1940's and 1950's, became part of the standard International
Cuban Rumba. (Lavelle, 1975, 1).
With only a transfer of weight from one foot to the other on beat 1
of each bar, and the absence of an actual step on this beat, the dance
has developed a very sensual character. Beat 1 is a strong beat of the
music, but all that moves on that beat are the hips, so the music
emphasises the dancing of the hips. This together with the slow tempo
of the music (116 beats/minute) makes the dance very romantic. Steps
are actually taken on beats 2, 3, and 4. Weight tranfer and turns are
performed on the intervening half beats. Again, as in the Samba, the
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weight is kept forward, with forward steps taken toe-flat, and with
minimal movement of the upper torso throughout.
TOPIC: SWIMMING. Techniques of sports ways of
swimming. By William Cowper.
Now in sports navigation next ways are applied: a crawl on
breasts, a crawl on a back, a breast stroke and a butterfly. These ways
conditionally share on two groups: ways with alternate movements by
hands and legs (a crawl on breasts and a crawl on a back) and with
simultaneous movements by hands and legs (a breast stroke and a
butterfly-dolphin). The way on one side, lost the sports value, is
applied during elementary education. It with success is used also in
applied navigation, in game in water polo.
The crawl on a breast is characterized by alternate and symmetric
movements of hands and legs. It is the fastest sports way of swimming
and the most popular. Heats of masters, especially on short distances,
are always looked with greater interest. Popularity of a crawl speaks a
breast also that it is mainly used at game in water polo, figured
swimming and at swimming in natural reservoirs. The certain value
has a crawl on a breast and in applied navigation. It is used for
overcoming water barrier, at rescuing drowning and in other cases.
The crawl on a breast is applied in competitions on navigation on
all distances of a freestyle: on 100, 200, 400, 800 and 1500 m, in relay
races 4XI00 and 4Х200 m a freestyle, in complex swimming on
distances of 200 and 400 m (the fourth piece 50 or 100), and also at
last stage of the combined relay race.
More often three variants of techniques of swimming by a crawl
on a breast are applied. In the first variant each cycle of movements
consists of two alternate movements of the hands, two alternate
movements of the legs, one breath and one exhalation in water. In the
second and third variants the quantity of movements of hands and
techniques of breath are kept, and the quantity of movements of legs
increases up to four or six. These variants have received the name of a
four-shock and six-shock crawl on a breast.
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Position of a body. The body of the swimmer is located at a surface of water and is in well flowed round, is close to horizontal, position (a corner of "attack" 2–6). The head is lowered in water (the
person downwards) so that the water level was approximately at the
top part of a forehead. The trunk makes turnaround of a longitudinal
axis of a body on 35–50. The greatest inclination is necessary at the
moment of a breath. Fluctuation of a trunk strengthens rowed and
helps a carry by of a hand and performance of a breath.
Movement of legs. Legs carry out continuously counter
movements from top to down and from below upwards with small
amplitude. Movements of legs provide steady horizontal position of a
body and support speed of promotion. Movement of a leg downwards
refers to as worker (it promotes some promotion of a body forward),
and movement of a leg upwards-preparatory (it does not influence
promotion of a body forward). As movements of both legs are
absolutely identical, it is possible to consider technics on an example
of movement of one leg.
The techniques of diving at length and depth. By William
Cowper.
Techniques of diving composes of several independent
components -performances of special exercises before start,
techniques of immersing in water, change of depth of immersing and a
direction of movement and ways of movement under water.
Special exercises before start provide and facilitate a long delay
of breath. Before immersing in water during approximately 1 mine it
is necessary to do hyperventilation easy-execute some deep breaths
and full quiet exhalations. It promotes allocation from an organism of
carbonic acid and by that limits its excessive accumulation in blood
during muscular work under water at a delay of breath. Directly ahead
of start diving carries out not too deep breath. Moving ahead under
water, the swimmer after a while after a delay of breath starts to desire
to make a breath. To facilitate this condition, it is necessary to execute
at the closed mouth two-rub deglutitory movements and right after it a
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small exhalation. These actions reduce intrapulmonary pressure and
deduce surpluses of carbonic acid from an organism.
Techniques of immersing in water. Immersing in water is carried
out by legs or a head downwards from basic or unsupported positions.
Immersing in water downwards with use of a support is carried out by
a head as a usual starting jump. If the jump is connected with the
subsequent diving in depth the body should enter into water under a
greater corner. The simplest way of immersing in water on greater
depth is the jump in water legs downwards with the hands lifted
upwards. There are two basic ways of immersing on depth from a
surface of water: a head and legs downwards. At immersing by a head
downwards in the beginning it is necessary to rise from water due to
row hands downwards and to execute a deep breath, then to make a
grouping and half turnover forward due to fast movement of hands
forward, and heads downwards. Having given thus to a trunk vertical
position by a head downwards, it is necessary to straighten sharply
legs, having lifted them as it is possible above water, and to plunge
into water, if necessary carrying out then movements depending on
the selected way of diving. At immersing by legs downwards it is
necessary to make a start simultaneously from water hands and legs,
to jump out above, to lift hands upwards, and to make a deep breath,
to straighten and connect legs. After the body will plunge into water,
leaving legs straightened and connected to bend hands and to do
vigorous rows from below through the parties upwards. This way is
used at diving on small depth. For deeper immersing other way is
used. After the body from a surface of water will lower under water, it
is necessary to be grouped and carry out quickly the further immersing
by a head downwards, helping itself movements by hands by the selected way. Change of depth of immersing and a direction of movement. Following receptions of change of depth of immersing are most
simple: movement of a head (downwards and upwards), bending in a
waist, and change of position of brushes of hands.
For maintenance of orientation under water it is necessary to hold
during diving eyes opened. It is recommended also before immersing
58
in water to plan well visible reference points - bright lines at the bottom, stones, piles, etc.
TOPIC: DISABILITY. By Edmund Burke.
Disability is often defined as what a person cannot do because of a
medical condition. For example, it might be said that 'she cannot use the
fitness equipment room because she is in a wheelchair. This guidance,
however, is written from the viewpoint that it is the design and
management of a facility that create the barriers and limitations to its
use. Consequently, the view would be that 'she cannot use the fitness
equipment room because the equipment is inappropriate and the room is
located on an inaccessible mezzanine floor. Or 'she cannot use the
fitness equipment room because the staff has not had adequate training.
Organized sport for athletes with a disability is generally divided into
three broad disability groups: the deaf, people with physical disabilities,
and people with intellectual disabilities. Each group has a distinct history,
organization, competition program, and approach to sport.
Formal international competition in deaf sport began with the 1924
Paris Silent Games, organized by the Comité International des Sports des
Sourds, CISS (The International Committee of Sports for the Deaf).
These games evolved into the modern Deaflympics, governed by the
CISS. The CISS maintains separate games for deaf athletes based on their
numbers, their special communication needs on the sports field, and the
social interaction that is a vital part of sports [1].
Organized sport for persons with physical disabilities developed
out of rehabilitation programs. Following the Second World War, in
response to the needs of large numbers of injured ex-service members
and civilians, sport was introduced as a key part of rehabilitation.
Sport for rehabilitation grew into recreational sport and then into
competitive sport. The pioneer of this approach was Sir Ludwig
Guttmann of the Stoke Mandeville Hospital in England. In 1948,
while the Olympic Games were being held in London, he organized a
sports competition for wheelchair athletes at Stoke Mandeville. This
was the origin of the Stoke Mandeville Games, which evolved into the
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modern Paralympic Games. Currently, Paralympic sport is governed
by the International Paralympic Committee, in conjunction with a
wide range of other international sport organizations.
Sport for persons with intellectual disabilities began to be orga-
nized in the 1960s through the Special Olympics movement. This
grew out of a series of summer camps organized by Eunice Kennedy
Shriver, beginning in 1962. In 1968 the first international Special
Olympics were held, in Chicago. Today, Special Olympics provides
training and competition in a variety of sports for persons with
intellectual disabilities.
In 1986, the International Sports Federation for Persons with
Intellectual Disability (INAS-FID) was formed to support elite
competition for athletes with intellectual disabilities. This was established
in contrast to the more participative, "sport for all" approach of Special
Olympics. For a time, athletes with intellectual disabilities were included
in the Paralympic Games. After a cheating scandal at the 2000 Summer
Paralympics, where a number of athletes participating in intellectual
disability events were revealed to not be disabled, INAS-FID athletes
were banned from Paralympic competition, but the ban on intellectually
disabled athletes has since been lifted.
In 2006, the Extremity Games was formed for people with limb
loss or limb difference to compete in extreme sports. The College Park
Industries, a manufacturer of prosthetic feet, organized this event to
give amputee athletes a venue to compete in this increasingly popular
sports genre also referred to as action sports. This annual event held in
the summer in Orlando, FL includes competitions in skateboarding,
wakeboarding, rock climbing, mountain biking, surfing, moto-x and
kayaking. Various organizations, such as Paradox Sports, have arisen
to help empower and inspire disabled people through equipping and
welcoming them into the extreme sports community.
In 2007, a group of San Diego, California-based athletes, coaches,
volunteers, and parents split from Special Olympics Southern
California to gain local control over disabled athletics programs. This
group SPORTS for Exceptional Athletes (S4EA) – serves people with
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