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Файл:Основы реферирования и аннотирования научной английской литературы. Часть 1. Учебно-методическое пособие
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multiplied by the several vertical-market sectors your company serves
multiplied by the different target groups that influence purchasing. A
marketing communications plan helps you concentrate your efforts
and resources on attainable goals for priority projects. With a written
marketing plan and a written marketing communications plan based
upon internal and external marketing audits, you can steer your
company away from a hit-or-miss course.
The diagnostics of thinking. The dependence of the type of
thinking on the functional asymmetry of cerebral hemispheres. By
Thomas Pynchon.
The active studies of the dependence of the type of thinking on
the functional asymmetry of cerebral hemispheres began not so long
ago. First of all it is connected with the name of the American psychoneurologist R. Sperry, who made an operation on disconnecting the
links between the cerebral hemispheres with the aim of treating a
complicated form of epilepsy at the end of 60-s. During the
observations of his patients R. Sperry discovered that the two
hemispheres of a uniform brain act as two completely different brains.
A man, whose right hemisphere was disconnected, but the left
hemisphere worked, conserved his ability to speak, adequately reacted
to the words, numbers and other signs, but he was often helpless when
he was supposed to do something with material things or their
pictures. When the left hemisphere was disconnected, the patient
could easily manage with such tasks, he understood some pieces of
art, melodies and speech intonations, he could orient in space, but he
lost his ability to understand complicated verbal constructions and
could not speak coherently at all.
The explanation of reasons, which led to the hemisphere
specialization in the process of evolution, suggested by Doreen
Kimura and her colleagues (1973) is rather interesting. Basing on the
fact that the speech function of left hemisphere is connected with the
leading right hand movements, she supposes that the specialization of
left hemisphere for speech is not so much the consequence of
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asymmetric development of symbolical functions as the development
of some particular motive skills, which help in the process of
communication. The language appeared, because the left hemisphere
was more suitable for some kinds of motive activity.
The link between the left hemisphere and some particular type of
movement is well known in clinic. The hand corresponding to the
hemisphere with speech center (the right hand of right-handed people)
shows more abilities to make delicate movements than the hand
connected with non-dominating hemisphere. The patients with left
hemisphere dysfunction, but having no right-side paralysis, find it
difficult to reproduce a composite sequence of motions and composite
finger positions. The left hemisphere dysfunction of deaf-mutes is
accompanied by the decay of sign language, which is similar to the
speech decay of normally speaking people.
D. Kimura suggests (1973) that in the process of evolution it was the
development of the hand as a sign language organ and the development of
its manipulative abilities that led to the development of the left
hemisphere. Later this function was acquired by voice muscles.
Probably the functional asymmetry, which appeared due to the evo-
lution, allowed using the space for information procession more economically, avoiding double functions. So the dominance of one
hemisphere in speech function prevents a possible competition between
the hemispheres for the tongue, upper and lower lips and mouth. The
process of evolution is characterized not only by the quantitative
accumulation of asymmetry elements, but also by a qualitative saltus –
the development of a deep specialization of the left and right hemisphere
function saving certain potential abilities of compensating one
hemisphere by another one (N.L.Bianki, 1985; M.Gazaniga, 1974).
The formation of individual style of activity. By Christopher
Marlowe.
Only those people can achieve the effective results in any activity
whose individual style of activity is properly formed, i.e. who have a
style of activity adequate to a person’s individual peculiarities,
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particularly to such important characteristics as a type of thinking.
Otherwise the individual style of activity is non-adequate and it results
in the low effectiveness of activity, it also causes psychological
discomfort, monotony and other undesirable consequences.
Quite often you may observe a teacher or a master of industrial training realizing the principle «do as I do it» and thus forming the individual
style of activity, which is harmful for a pupil. A pupil in this situation
reminds a cucumber seed of which they try to grow an orange by all
means. The effect of such «development» is just a great waste of time.
In this connection you should take into account the correlation
between individually typological and activity-stereotyped indexes
of FAH.
The indexes of individually typological peculiarities of thinking
show the ways of forming the individual style of activity. If people
with abstract-logical type of thinking prefer to operate with symbols,
abstract things, schemes, structures, etc., then the people of emotionalfigurative thinking operate with spatial images of a picture type,
which are distinguished by their dynamics and emotional coloring.
In order to define the correspondence of individually typological
peculiarities of thinking to the chosen individual style of activity you
should compare the indexes of individually typological and activitystereotyped thinking with each other. In case there are essential
discrepancies between them you should pay attention to the necessity
of the individual activity style correction to raise its productivity.
It is important to note that you can judge about the inaccurate
style of thinking activity not by the fact of thinking deviation into the
side of logic in emotional-figurative thinking, but the fact that the
indexes of thinking essentially differ between individually typological
and activity-stereotyped characteristics. So, the abstract-logical type
of thinking of a musician is not the index of his professional
unsuitability. There are cases when such people achieve great results
in musical activity. The fact of abstract-logical thinking
predominance in emotional-figurative activity should be understood
not as a signal of failure, but as advice to change thinking activity, as a
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necessity of a different – in comparison with a traditional one –
individual approach in education.
The manifestations of different types of thinking of musicians and
the methods of correct work with them were described earlier (Yu. A.
Tsagarelly, 1986). An individual approach with due account for
individually typological peculiarities of FAH of people of other
professions is becoming more and more popular and is described in
literature as it is extremely important for the optimization of
educational process.
The diagnostics of thinking peculiarities has a wide range of
usage both for psychological-pedagogical investigations and for
practical work with people. It is so because this factor of FAH makes
an essential influence on all the processes of perception and
processing the information by a person, including the peculiarities of
memory, attention, and perception. That is why the results of the
diagnostics may be of great use in promoting these questions.
The formation of individual style of activity presupposes the
correction of the thinking activity process. Correcting the process of
these or those tasks solution, directing the thinking into a necessary
channel you should periodically control this process diagnosing the
situational index of thinking. The results of such diagnostics allow
clearing up the correcting influence to avoid some erratic judgements,
to pay attention to the correct ones. So, there takes place a feedback
that is necessary in any correction process.
Forming professional groups. By Thomas Dekker.
Selecting people into optimal groups for making a collateral
activity you should take into account the factors of psychological
compatibility and complementarity. In this connection you should
base on a general law according to which the identical poles are
repelled and the different ones are attracted.
People with different types of thinking mutually complement each
other and they do not have competitive relations. For this reason
people of emotional-figurative type of thinking are well compatible
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with people of abstract-logical type of thinking and they are hardly
compatible with people of identical type of thinking.
People distinguished by a mixed type of thinking are compatible
with the representatives of both extreme types. But the degree of
compatibility in such cases is less than that between the antipodes.
When forming the groups working under the condition of high
tenseness and lack of time (which is especially characteristic of
special subdivisions of MIA, MES, FSB and others) you should take
into account that special requirements are made to the speed and
accuracy of task solution.
The advantage of abstract-logical thinking is its accuracy
provided by operational logic of thinking processes. However, the
operation requires a considerable waste of time and causes the
sluggishness of this type of thinking. Emotional-figurative and spatial
thinking are deprived of this disadvantage and surpass greatly the
abstract-logical thinking by their speed. At the same time quick
reactions made on the emotional level can often be incorrect.
So that this or that professional group could solve the given tasks as
quickly and accurately as possible and meet the requirements of
psychological compatibility it is necessary to form the group consisting of
a proportional number of people having different types of thinking.
The psychological characteristics of personality are: needs which
stipulate a person’s activity, personality orientation which determines
the way this activity is oriented on, motivation which is connected
with a person’s interests, self-consciousness closely connected with
self-appraisal and also such characteristics as psycho-emotional
steadiness, reliability in extreme situations, emotional reactivity,
stability, anxiety, etc.
Being stable psychological characteristics, many of them are
conditioned by frequent repetitions of the corresponding psychic states
and processes typical of this personality.
So, frequent states of anxiety form personality anxiety, typical
emotional manifestations form emotional reaction and so on. In its
turn, personality characteristics cause corresponding psychic states.
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For example, people with high emotional reactivity are more sensitive
to some irritants than those with low emotional reactivity, etc.
The diagnostics of psychological characteristics of personality can
be performed by the apparatus ATS-6 using both instrumental and
non-instrumental methods. The present chapter will contain
instrumental methods of the diagnostics of psychological
characteristics of personality and the Following one will describe noninstrumental methods – together with the methods of the diagnostics
of socio-psychological and social characteristics.
TOPIC: PUBLIC RELATIONS. By John Fletcher.
Guidelines and procedures for investigating infringements of press
freedom The United Nations Office of Legal Affairs in New York and the
United Nations Centre for Human Rights in Geneva are among the international bodies that have best defined guidelines and procedures for accurately reporting human rights violations. Some material in this chapter is
also taken from the Human Rights Handbook published by the University
of Essex Human Rights Centre in 1995.
1. General guidelines.
• Any investigation must be followed by a written report. The
facts must be put down in writing to ensure that the information is
accurate, to avoid rumours and to keep a record of the details
gathered. If the case is serious or urgent, information may be passed
on by radio or telephone – as long as it remains confidential - but it
must later be put into writing as well.
• The investigator must keep the information he or she gathers
confidential. Failure to observe this requirement may have serious
consequences for the victim, witnesses or the investigator. Witnesses
should be asked explicitly if their comments may be used and if they
may be quoted. The witness must be told that the investigator is
working for an independent organisation and not for the police or
other official body, and that the investigator’s work does not replace
that of a national or international legal inquiry.
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• Visual images are subject to specific guidelines. Photographing
or filming a scene may provoke unexpected reactions, especially
hostile reactions, and should be kept to a minimum. As far as possible,
photographs of victims of cruelty should be taken in complete privacy.
In cases of torture or ill-treatment, it is better not to photograph the
victim’s face so that he or she will be harder to identify should the
pictures fall into the wrong hands.
The four stages of the inquiry.
• The first stage is to collect evidence and allegations. When
circumstances allow, investigators should say who they represent and
introduce themselves so that victims know to whom they are speaking.
Victims should always be told the exact status of investigators, who
should be sure to organise a follow-up meeting, or at least find out
where victims may be contacted. Investigators should also tell victims
who to get in touch with to pass on further information or to alert the
organization to threats or intimidation they receive after giving
evidence. Before starting the research, investigators should draw up a
list of priorities. The most serious infringements of press freedom are
those aimed specifically at journalists and their families:
(a) Extrajudicial or arbitrary killings, attempted killings of this
nature, murder threats and kidnappings. Article 6 of the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights states that everyone has the right
to life and that this right is protected by law. Moreover, no-one should
be arbitrarily deprived of life (see also Article 3 of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, 1948).Investigations carried out by
independent organisations should in no way release governments from
their duty under international law to investigate violations of the right to
life. The obligations of governments in this respect are set out in the
«Principles for the Effective Prevention of Extrajudicial, Arbitrary and
Summary Killings and on Ways of Effectively Investigating Such Killings» which form part of Resolution 1989/65 of the United Nations
Economic and Social Council.
(b) Cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, and
torture. Article 5 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights rec-
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ognizes the right to personal integrity: «No-one shall be subjected to
torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment». A
violation of personal integrity occurs when the state, through its employees or any other person acting in an official capacity or at the behest of the state or with its express or tacit consent, inflicts torture or
cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment by causing physical, psychological or moral suffering.
(c) Illegal arrest or detention. A violation of the right to personal
integrity occurs when the state, through its employees or any other person
acting in an official capacity or at the behest of the state or with its
express or tacit consent, deprives a person of his or her freedom without a
valid reason, by imprisonment, detention in another place or by placing
them under house arrest. Such practices are contrary to the right to the
freedom and security of the individual recognised in Article 9 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states that: «No-one shall be
subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile». These provisions are also
set out in Article 9–1 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights. Moreover, in a report published in 1992, the United Nations
Commission on Human Rights said that «detention as a means of punishing the peaceful expression of an opinion is one of the most reprehensible
methods used to impose silence, and therefore a serious violation of human rights».
(d) Attacks and threats carried out because people have used their
right to freedom of opinion, freedom of expression or freedom of association. Other infringements of the right to inform which concern
the media are:
- attacks on premises (editorial offices, printing works)
- legal, administrative and economic pressure
- obstacles to the domestic free flow of information
- obstacles to the international free flow of information.
The drafting of the final report depends to a large extent on this
classification.
It should also be recalled that while investigators should record all
matters attributable to a state, through its employees or any other person
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acting in an official capacity or at the behest of the state or with its
express or tacit consent, they should give equal attention to matters
attributable to armed opposition groups, or to anyone acting at the
behest of or with the express or tacit consent of these armed groups.
• During the second stage, investigators should check the
information given to them by victims. They should also collect
complementary evidence, then question the authorities that have been
accused whenever possible. The method that should be used for
collecting evidence is given below.
• The third stage is drafting the final report.
• During their research, investigators make recommendations and
take appropriate measures with the overriding concern of protecting
the lives and security of victims and their families. This is the fourth
stage. Investigators ensure that all cases are followed up and that
witnesses have not been threatened.
3. Collecting evidence from individual witnesses
• This is an essential stage in the investigation process. When
circumstances allow, investigators conduct a preliminary interview
during which they collect neutral data about witnesses, such as names,
win their trust and attempt to assess their views, contradictions,
prejudices and ulterior motives. At this stage investigators should
decide whether the person being questioned is a victim, a witness or
the supposed perpetrator of a violation.
• Witnesses should agree to be questioned of their own free will,
preferably by someone of the same sex. The report written after the
meeting should mention how the witness behaved (gestures,
nervousness, anxiety). It should also be stated whether audio or video
recordings were made or photographs taken during the interview.
Ideally there should be at least two investigators present. The witness
may also ask for a friend or relative to be present.
• Interpreters should be fluent in the languages of both
investigator and witnesses. They should not alter the evidence, either
by summarising what a witness says, filling in gaps in the evidence
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with information obtained elsewhere, or trying to «improve» the evidence by «correcting» uncertainties or contradictions.
• Whenever circumstances allow, standard questionnaires should be
used to collect evidence. This helps investigators to conduct the
interview and sort out the information obtained, and ensures that
important information is not forgotten. Nonetheless, such questionnaires
should not be an obstacle to the investigation and interviews may be
carried out in a less structured manner when this seems appropriate. The
questionnaires given below are from the United Nations (Document 1)
and Reporters Sans Frontières (Document 2).
They give an idea of the nature and degree of accuracy of the
information to be collected. Investigators should, however, bear in
mind that possession of such questionnaires may prove dangerous
for themselves or for victims. In all cases, these documents should
be kept strictly confidential.
• The circumstances in which the interview took place should be
recorded in writing or by some other means. The investigator should:
- record the names of all those present during the interview and
what part they played in it,
- ask the person questioned to state explicitly that he or she agreed
to be interviewed,
- ask the person questioned if he or she agrees with the way the
interview was conducted,
- point out the limitations to the confidential nature of the inter-
view (presence of a third party obligatory),
- ask the person questioned whether he or she understands the in-
terpreter and is satisfied with the way his or her replies are being interpreted.
• The investigator should conduct the interview in an assertive
manner and should:
- ask only one question at a time,
- avoid biased questions,
- ask simple questions,
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