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Файл:Английский для экономистов. Учебное пособие
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Рыночная экономика. Характеризуется частной собственностью на
ресурсы и наличием системы рынков. Люди имеют свободу выбора,
открывать ли свою фирму, что и как производить и как тратить свои доходы.
Обычно при этом человек преследует личную выгоду. Перераспределение
ресурсов происходит за счет естественного изменения цен на рынке в
зависимости от спроса и предложения
. При возникновении дефицита цены
растут, при перепроизводстве снижаются. Главный стимул работы
предприятий – прибыль.
Командная экономика. Характеризуется общественной собственностью
на материальные ресурсы, коллективным принятием экономических решений
и централизованным планированием. Предприятия являются собственностью
государства и действуют на основе директив государственных органов. Цены
назначаются государством и не зависят от спроса и предложения. Дефицит
приводит к введению карточной системы. Главной целью предприятий
является не прибыль, а выполнение плана, установленного государством.
Смешанная экономика. Экономические системы наиболее развитых
стран содержат элементы как рыночной, так и командной экономики. Это
позволяет использовать преимущества одного типа и компенсировать его
недостатки за счет элементов другого. Так, США наиболее близки к
рыночной
экономике. Однако государство имеет собственные предприятия.
Оно вмешивается в деятельность других фирм для стабилизации экономики
и защиты национальных интересов.
Part 2
WHAT DO ECONOMISTS DO?
Economists study how society distributes resources, such as land, labor, raw
materials, and machinery, to produce goods and services. They conduct research,
collect and analyze data, monitor economic trends, and develop forecasts on a wide
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variety of issues, including energy costs, inflation, interest rates, exchange rates,
business cycles, taxes, and employment levels, among others.
Economists develop methods for obtaining the data they need. For example,
sampling techniques may be used to conduct a survey, and various mathematical
modeling techniques may be used to develop forecasts. Preparing reports,
including tables and charts, on research results also is an important part of an
economist's job, as is presenting economic and statistical concepts in a clear and
meaningful way for those who do not have a background in economics. Some
economists also perform economic analysis for the media.
Many economists specialize in a particular area of economics, although
general knowledge of basic economic principles is essential. Microeconomists
study the supply and demand decisions of individuals and firms, such as how
profits can be maximized and the quantity of a good or service that consumers will
demand at a certain price. Industrial economists and organizational economists
study the market structure of particular industries in terms of the number of
competitors within those industries and examine the market decisions of
competitive firms and monopolies. These economists also may be concerned with
antitrust policy and its impact on market structure. Macroeconomists study
historical trends in the whole economy and forecast future trends in areas such as
unemployment, inflation, economic growth, productivity, and investment.
Monetary economists and financial economists do work that is similar to that done
by macroeconomists. These workers study the money and banking system and the
effects of changing interest rates. International economists study global financial
markets, currencies and exchange rates, and the effects of various trade policies
such as tariffs. Labor economists and demographic economists study the supply
and demand for labor and the determination of wages. These economists also try to
explain the reasons for unemployment and the effects of changing demographic
trends, such as an aging population and increasing immigration, on labor markets.
Public finance economists are involved primarily in studying the role of the
government in the economy and the effects of tax cuts, budget deficits, and welfare
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policies. Econometricians investigate all areas of economics and apply
mathematical techniques such as calculus, game theory, and regression analysis to
their research. With these techniques, they formulate economic models that help
explain economic relationships that can be used to develop forecasts about
business cycles, the effects of a specific rate of inflation on the economy, the
effects of tax legislation on unemployment levels, and other economic phenomena.
Many economists apply these areas of economics to health, education,
agriculture, urban and regional economics, law, history, energy, the environment,
and other issues. Economists working for corporations are involved primarily in
microeconomic issues, such as forecasting consumer demand and sales of the
firm's products. Some analyze their competitors' market share and advise their
company on how to handle the competition. Others monitor legislation passed by
Congress, such as environmental and worker safety regulations, and assess how
new laws will affect the corporation. Corporations with many international
branches or subsidiaries might employ economists to monitor the economic
situations in countries where they do business or to provide a risk assessment of a
country into which the company is considering expanding.
Economists working in economic consulting or research firms sometimes
perform the same tasks as economists working for corporations. However,
economists in consulting firms also perform much of the macroeconomic analysis
and forecasting conducted in the United States. Their analyses and forecasts are
frequently published in newspapers and journal articles.
Another large employer of economists is government. Economists in the
Federal Government administer most of the surveys and collect the majority of the
economic data about the United States. For example, economists in the U.S.
Department of Commerce collect and analyze data on the production, distribution,
and consumption of commodities produced in the United States, and economists
employed by the U.S. Department of Labor collect and analyze data on the
domestic economy, including data on prices, wages, employment, productivity,
and safety and health.
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Economists who work for government agencies also assess economic
conditions in the United States and abroad to estimate the effects of specific
changes in legislation and public policy. Government economists advise policy
makers in areas such as the deregulation of industries, the effects of changes to
Social Security, the effects of tax cuts on the budget deficit, and the effectiveness
of imposing tariffs on imported goods. An economist working in State or local
government might analyze data on the growth of school-age or prison populations
and on employment and unemployment rates to project future spending needs.
Economists have structured work schedules. They often work alone, writing
reports, preparing statistical charts, and using computers, but they also may be an
integral part of a research team. Many work under pressure of deadlines and tight
schedules, which may require overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by
special requests for data and by the need to attend meetings or conferences. Some
travel may be necessary.
A master's or Ph.D. degree in economics is required for many private sector
economist jobs and for advancement to higher-level positions. In the Federal
Government, candidates for entry-level economist positions must have a bachelor's
degree with a minimum of 21 semester hours of economics and 3 hours of
statistics, accounting, or calculus, or a combination of education and experience.
Economics includes numerous specialties at the graduate level, such as
econometrics, international economics, and labor economics. Students should
select graduate schools that are strong in the specialties that interest them. Some
schools help graduate students find internships or part-time employment in
government agencies, economic consulting or research firms, or financial
institutions before graduation.
Undergraduate economics majors can choose from a variety of courses,
ranging from microeconomics, macroeconomics, and econometrics to more
philosophical courses, such as the history of economic thought. Because of the
importance of quantitative skills to economists, courses in mathematics, statistics,
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econometrics, sampling theory and survey design, and computer science are
extremely helpful.
Whether working in government, industry, research organizations, or
consulting firms, economists with a bachelor's degree usually qualify for entry-
level positions as a research assistant, for marketing or finance positions, or for
various sales jobs. A master's degree usually is required to qualify for more
responsible research and administrative positions. A Ph.D. is necessary for top
economist positions in many organizations.
Aspiring economists should gain experience gathering and analyzing data,
conducting interviews or surveys, and writing reports on their findings while in
college. This experience can prove invaluable later in obtaining a full-time position
in the field because much of the economist's work, especially in the beginning,
may center on these duties. With experience, economists eventually are assigned
their own research projects. Related job experience, such as work as a stock or
bond trader, might be advantageous.
EXERCISES
1. Sum up the main ides of the text and retell it in Russian.
2. Fill in the missing words from the box into the text below.
pieces hockey coincidence dual lives publishes money deposits balances
institutional different
So money isn't just 1)_________ of paper. It's a medium of exchange that
facilitates trade. Suppose I have a Wayne Gretzky hockey card that I'd like to
exchange for a new pair of shoes. Without the use of money, I have to find a
person, or combination of people who have an extra pair of shoes to give up, and
just happen to be looking for a Wayne Gretzky 2)_________ card. Quite
obviously, this would be quite difficult. This is known as the double coincidence of
wants problem:(T)he double 3)_________ is the situation where the supplier of
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good A wants good B and the supplier of good B wants good A. The point is that
the institution of money gives us a more flexible approach to trade than barter,
which has the double coincidence of wants problem. Also known as 4)_________
coincidence of wants.
Since money is a recognized medium of exchange, I do not have to find
someone who has a pair of new shoes and is looking for a Wayne Gretzky hockey
card.
I just need to find someone who is looking for a Gretzky card who is willing
to pay enough money so I can get a new pair at Footlocker. This is a far easier
problem, and thus our 5)_________ are a lot easier, and our economy more
efficient, with the existance of money.
«The Federal Reserve 6)_________ weekly and monthly data on three
money supply measures – M1, M2, and M3 – as well as data on the total amount of
debt of the nonfinancial sectors of the U.S. economy... The 7)_________ supply
measures reflect the different degrees of liquidity – or spendability – that different
types of money have. The narrowest measure, M1, is restricted to the most liquid
forms of money; it consists of currency in the hands of the public; travelers checks;
demand 8)_________, and other deposits against which checks can be written. M2
includes M1, plus savings accounts, time deposits of under $100,000, and
9)_________ in retail money market mutual funds. M3 includes M2 plus large-
denomination ($100,000 or more) time deposits, balances in 10)_________ money
funds, repurchase liabilities issued by depository institutions, and Eurodollars held
by U.S. residents at foreign branches of U.S. banks and at all banks in the United
Kingdom and Canada».
So there are several 11)_________ classifications of money. Note that credit
cards are not a form of money.
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3. Read the following article and make a rendering of it in English.
ЧТО ТАКОЕ ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИЙ РОСТ?
Под экономическим ростом принято понимать увеличение объемов
экономики государства, которое можно пронаблюдать исходя из
макропоказателей – прежде всего, величины ВВП. При этом в расчет берется
реальное увеличение соответствующего показателя, а не номинальное – то
есть когда ВВП исчисляется с учетом роста инфляции. Если ВВП опережает
ее, то фиксируется экономический рост.
Рассматриваемое понятие может
обозначать не только увеличение
стоимости производимых предприятиями государства товаров и услуг, но
также и рост объема их выпуска в количественном выражении. В этом
смысле понятие экономического роста следует трактовать более узко –
применительно к какой-либо отрасли, например к машиностроению.
Под экономическим развитием понимается общее улучшение
состояния экономики государства, которое может
выражаться, во-первых, в
экономическом росте (но это не всегда так – далее мы рассмотрим почему), а
во-вторых, в качественной модернизации хозяйственных процессов – с точки
зрения применяемых технологий, производительности труда, качества и
конкурентоспособности товаров и услуг, поставляемых на внутренний и
мировой рынок.
Экономическое развитие государства предполагает рост доходов
граждан – причем, как
и в случае с ВВП, в реальном, а не номинальном
выражении: в темпах, которые опережают инфляцию. Наличие большего
объема располагаемых денежных средств предопределяет улучшение многих
социальных показателей – таких как качество образования жителей страны
(для них становится доступнее платное обучение в вузах и на различных
курсах, в том числе и за
рубежом), а также, например, повышение уровня
знаний граждан в области национальной и международной культуры
(человек получает возможность больше путешествовать, участвовать в
экспедициях, жить в других странах).
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Важные аспекты экономического развития – инвестиционная
привлекательность национального хозяйства страны, объем торгов на
фондовых рынках государства. Имеет значение и динамика курса валюты
страны. При устойчивом экономическом развитии он стабилен либо отражает
удорожание национальной валюты государства.
Главное отличие экономического роста от экономического развития в
том, что второй процесс – более емкий по содержанию. Как
правило, он
включает в себя и экономический рост. Но обязательно – дополняет его
другими показателями, причем не только экономического, но и социального
характера.
Может ли наблюдаться экономический рост без экономического
развития, и наоборот?
Теоретически и то и другое возможно. В отдельные периоды
экономического развития государства нередко реализуется сценарий, при
котором ключевые
макроэкономические показатели – такие как ВВП –
устойчиво растут, но это слабо отражается на качественных характеристиках
национального хозяйства. Предприятия страны могут продолжать активно
выпускать востребованные товары, но без улучшений в части
технологических процессов и повышения, как результат,
конкурентоспособности продукции.
В свою очередь, экономическое развитие вполне возможно и без
заметного экономического роста. Даже если
ВВП страны не растет или же
вовсе снижается – предприятия, расположенные в государстве, могут тем не
менее активно модернизировать фабричные линии, увеличивать
производительность труда, обеспечивать рост зарплаты сотрудникам.
Но в долгосрочной перспективе экономическое развитие маловероятно
без экономического роста – и наоборот. В определенный момент дальнейшее
увеличение ВВП государства становится возможным только при
условии
качественной модернизации производства и социальной системы, при
внедрении новых технологий, повышении покупательной способности
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населения. Аналогично, если ВВП и объемы производства в национальном
хозяйстве долгое время расти не будут, то в экономике попросту не появится
ресурсов для необходимой модернизации.
Part 3
THE NATURE OF ECONOMICS
Economics is the scientific study of the ownership, use, and exchange of
scarce resources – often shortened to the science of scarcity. Economics is
regarded as a social science because it uses scientific methods to build theories that
can help explain the behaviour of individuals, groups and organisations.
Economics attempts to explain economic behaviour, which arises when scarce
resources are exchanged.
In terms of methodology, economists, like other social scientists, are not
able to undertake controlled experiments in the way that chemists and biologists
are. Hence, economists have to employ different methods, based primarily on
observation and deduction and the construction of abstract models.
As the social sciences have evolved over the last 100 years, they have
become increasingly specialised. This is true for economics, as witnessed by the
development of many different strands of investigation including micro and macro
economics, pure and applied economics, and industrial and financial economics.
What links them all is the attempt to understand how and why exchange takes
place, and how exchange creates benefits and costs for the participants.
The study of economics involves three related investigations.
1.Why scarce resources are exchanged?
2.How consumers and producers behave as they interact with each other in
markets, in their attempt to achieve mutually beneficial exchange?
3.The role of government in compensating for the limitations of markets in
achieving mutually beneficial exchange?
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Economists describe changes in economic variables, and measure these
changes over time. For example, economists describe and measure how interaction
in markets determines the prices of such diverse products as motor cars, houses,
haircuts, and computer software. Measurement in economics can take many forms,
including measuring absolute and relative quantities and values. When measuring
relative values it is common to use index numbers.
Economists try to explain the effects, or results, of economic transactions.
For example, economists can explain why, despite bubbles and crashes, the long-
run trend in house prices in the UK has been upwards over the last 30 years, and
can identify those who have been affected positively and negatively by this
increase. Of course, economists also try to explain the short-term movements in
prices, and how they also have costs and benefits.
Like all scientists, economists develop hypotheses to explain why economic
behaviour takes place, and then construct models to test these hypotheses. For
example, economists may propose that price rises are caused by excess demand,
and then attempt to construct a model of price that explains how excess demand
can raise price. Economists frequently use versions of the demand and supply
model to help explain events such as house price trends and movements. Economic
models usually employ graphical and mathematical analysis to help explain and
illustrate such economic processes.
Models must be tested against the real world, which means gathering
statistical data about real events. In this way, a model can be improved and revised
when necessary.
The ultimate goal of the economist is to predict future behaviour. For
example, by using a demand and supply model and by inputting real data about the
housing market, economists can show that even a small fall in bank lending can
trigger behaviour that leads to a significant fall in house prices in the short run. The
ultimate value of an economic model is that it can accurately predict the onset and
the effect of an economic event. The better the model is, the more useful it is in
helping economists make predictions.
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