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Файл:English Articles in Use. Артикли. Объяснение, употребление, тренинг
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Chapter 4
The meaningful absence
of the article
4.1. The zero article in the function
of absolute generalization
The zero article used with the noun in the singular has the
meaning of absolute generalization. The meaningful absence of
the article represents the noun − both abstract and concrete − in
a most general (in the abstract, in the broadest) sense:
Law begins with the beginning of human society.
Steam-engine introduced for locomotion a couple of centuries
ago now become obsolete.
In other cases the zero article is parallel to the corresponding
functions of the indefi nite and the defi nite article. Its use is conditioned by semantic or formal peculiarities of the noun. Thus,
the indefi nite article in the classifying function cannot precede
the noun in the plural or the uncountable noun denoting an abstract notion or a substance. In all these cases the zero article is
the only possibility:
Letters were scattered all over the fl oor of the room.
He has never presented me with fl owers.
She always speaks with decision.
We all felt pity for him.
I clearly saw his name written in violet ink.
Any living being needs water to keep their life going.
4.2. The zero article with material nouns
Nouns denoting substances are used as a rule in the singular
form; nevertheless they don’t take the indefi nite article since the
notion of «oneness» is absent here. The zero article with uncountable material nouns emphasizes the idea of absolute generalization, as neither a certain amount nor a concrete type is meant.
I don’t like coffee. I prefer tea.
We usually add sour cream or oil to the salad.
Snow is white and cold to touch.
Names of substances can be used with descriptive attributes
which don’t specify the meaning of the noun, just make it slightly
narrower, and thus don’t cause the change of the article.
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CHAPTER 4
Strong tea is bad for health, whereas green tea is more useful.
You need fresh air to improve your complexion.
Little furniture nowadays is made of real wood.
Material nouns denoting a sort, a kind or a portion are trans-
ferred to the class of countable nouns and as such they follow
the general rules for countable nouns. It means that they may
acquire the indefi nite article:
The child stopped whaling only after he was given an ice-
cream.
Sometimes the opposite tendency is observed – countable
nouns are considered substances and are consequently used with
the zero article. It usually appears in combination with the words
patch, bit, piece, scrap and the preposition of:
You see that great belt of trees with a scrap of river beyond?
Such countable nouns as a duck, a lamb, a chicken, a fi sh,
a turkey, a lobster etc. are preceded by the zero article in the
meaning «fi sh or fl ash used as food».
Is there fried fi sh on the menu?
Turkey is traditional Christmas food.
Duck has too much fat so I prefer chicken.
4.3. The zero article with collective nouns
Collective nouns denoting a group of similar objects viewed as
a whole are used with the zero article. They are such nouns as ad-
vice, baggage (AmE), chinaware (china), crockery, equipment, foliage, furniture, hardware, information, luggage,
machinery, money, news, table silver, etc. The descriptive
attribute doesn’t affect the article:
Money makes the world go round.
They bought expensive furniture for their new fl at.
She kept table silver in the lowest drawer of the cupboard.
Loaded by heavy luggage they were about to miss the train.
4.4. The zero article with abstract nouns
Abstract nouns are used with the zero article when they ex-
press some generalized notion.
Time is money.
Honesty is the best policy.
Crime is a serious problem in modern society.
Abstract nouns are often modifi ed by descriptive attributes
which, though specifying their meaning, still don’t cause the
change of the article. These attributes are represented by the following groups of adjectives:
52
CHAPTER 4
Adjectives denoting nationality 1. (English, Japanese, Spanish, French, etc.)
Adjectives denoting social characteristic of a person or an 2.
object (bourgeois, democratic, feudal, capitalist, socialist,
religious etc.)
Adjectives with a temporal meaning, especially those re-3.
ferring to historical epochs (ancient, medieval, modern,
contemporary, daily, monthly, further etc.)
Adjectives with a locative meaning 4. (internal, external, inner, outside, inside, local etc.)
Adjectives denoting authenticity 5. (real, genuine, true, false,
authentic, dubious etc.)
Adjectives denoting degree of some quality 6. (great, immense,
huge, tremendous, complete, absolute, perfect, considerable,
sheer, utter, suffi cient etc.)
Adjectives denoting artistic genres and trends 7. (belles-lettres,
realistic, romantic, dramatic, tragic, comic, detective etc.)
Adjectives referring to social or spiritual life of a person 8.
(personal, humane, social, political, moral, intellectual,
spiritual, mental, reasonable etc.)
Adjectives characterizing a person’s behavior 9. (informal,
nervous, serious, impertinent, polite etc.)
Some other adjectives such as 10. good, bad, free, ordinary,
plain, physical, human, etc.
If an uncountable abstract noun is modifi ed by another noun
in the common case the zero article is usually used:
Scientists are greatly interested in space exploration nowadays.
She wanted him to give up air traffi c control; to quit and
choose another occupation.
I’m not a fan of science fi ction.
Note. Some abstract nouns are known not to take the indefi nite article even if there is a descriptive attribute. They are such
nous as advice, assistance, behavior, bliss, breeding, cun-
ning, control, evidence, fun, guidance, health, information, money, nature, news, nonsense, permission, progress,
trade, weather, work.
Bad money always comes back.
I’ll give you advice and assistance whenever you need it.
We’re looking forward to better weather.
He’s made great progress in the language lately.
What fun we were having at the party!
53
CHAPTER 4
People should live in peace with nature.
Such kind of work requires good health.
Abstract nouns may undergo the change of their lexical mean-
ing, hence they become countable. In this case the choice of the
article follows the general rules.
What a nasty nature he has! (nature = character, disposition).
It was a most unusual experience. (experience = accident,
event, case.)
She must have been an astounding beauty in her youth.
(beauty = a pretty woman).
I don’t consider this picture a work of art. (a wor k = an object).
4.5. The meaningful absence of the article with
some semantic groups
of nouns
4.5.1. The zero article with nouns denoting seasons
Names of seasons are traditionally used with the zero article
though they may take the defi nite article as well:
I prefer ... (the) summer to all other seasons.
We cannot stay here till ... (the) winter, we ought to be back
home.
... (the) autumn will be over in a week.
The zero article is obligatory if the noun is used predicatively:
It isn’t winter yet, but the weather is dreadfully cold.
It was autumn and we stayed at home most part of the day.
Such adjectives as late and early don’t infl uence the choice of
the article while other descriptive attributes cause the use of the
indefi nite article:
It was early spring and the air was sweet and pleasant.
It is late autumn and it snows more often than rains.
But:
It was an awfully cold winter, so he could hardly last
through it.
What a nice and warm summer we are having now!
4.5.2. The zero article with nouns denoting parts
of the day
To this group belong such nouns as day, night, morning, afternoon, noon, daytime, evening, twilight, dusk, nightfall, midnight,
sunrise, sunset. They are used with the zero article in the following cases:
54
CHAPTER 4
when they denote light and darkness in a most general a)
way:
One must get up before sunrise and go to bed with sunset.
Night fell when we were halfway to the house.
with prepositions b) at, after, before, by, till, until, towards, past:
Is it possible for us to meet before noon?
She never leaves home at night.
I fi nished the work by afternoon.
if these nouns are used predicatively:c)
It was dusk but the children haven’t come back yet.
Now it is high noon.
when they are modifi ed by the attributes indicating days d)
of the week:
Our last meeting took place on Wednesday afternoon.
I haven’t seen you since Monday morning.
when they are modifi ed by one of the following adjectives: e)
late, early, broad, high, or by the adverbs yesterday
and tomorrow:
In late evening all birds fl y up to the trees to roost.
It was early morning when the fi rst visitor arrived.
Where were you yesterday evening?
in prepositional phrases used as an adverbial modifi er of f)
time: all day (long), all night (through), day after day,
day in day out, from morning till night, night after
night, day and night, from day to day etc.
We waited for him all day long but in vain.
They were building their little house from morning till
night.
Day after day he kept calling on me with his proposal.
4.5.3. The zero article with nouns denoting names
of meals
Names of meals (breakfast, lunch, luncheon, dinner, sup-
per, tea, high / meat tea) are used with the zero article in the
majority of cases.
Come and wash your hands, we’re having dinner in a
minute.
Where would you like to go after supper?
At breakfast everybody was gay and cheerful.
There are several set phrases with the nouns of this semantic
group:
55
CHAPTER 4
to have breakfast (lunch, tea, dinner, supper)
to lay the table for breakfast (lunch, tea, dinner, supper)
to invite somebody to breakfast (lunch, tea, dinner, supper)
to cook / prepare/ make breakfast (lunch, tea, dinner, supper)
to serve breakfast (lunch, tea, dinner, supper)
to clean the table after breakfast (lunch, tea, dinner, supper)
to have something for breakfast (lunch, tea, dinner, supper)
to be at breakfast (lunch, tea, dinner, supper)
at / before / after breakfast (lunch, tea, dinner, supper)
Breakfast (lunch, tea, dinner, supper) is ready / served / over.
4.5.4. The zero article with names of diseases
Names of diseases are commonly used with the zero article,
though some of them may take the defi nite article as well: ... / the
fl u, ... / the measles, ... /the mumps, ... / the plague, scarlet
fever, typhoid fever, infl uenza, appendicitis, bronchitis,
diabetes, tuberculosis (consumption), cholera, lumbago,
diphtheria, cancer etc.
My father is suffering from a bad attack of lumbago.
Nowadays people rarely die of consumption.
I cannot join your party tomorrow as I’ve fallen ill with fl u.
Note. In American English nouns toothache, stomachache,
backache, earache traditionally take the indefi nite article,
while in British English they are used with the zero article.
The aforementioned nouns are a part of set phrases with the
verb to have and may be modifi ed by a descriptive attribute.
Oh dear! I’m having a / … most splitting headache!
Yesterday you walked bareheaded and now you have a / …
bad earache.
She fell from her bicycle a week ago but still has a / … strong
backache.
4.5.5. The zero article with names of sciences and
school subjects
Names of sciences and school subjects are commonly used
with the zero article irrespective of their syntactic function in
the sentence:
Maths used to be his favourite subject at school.
I’m fond of natural sciences – Physics, Chemistry and Bio-
logy.
How many classes of Grammar do you have a week?
56
CHAPTER 4
4.5.6. The zero article with names of sports and
games
Names of sports and games are used with the zero article
both as the subject of the sentence and the object to the predicate
verb.
Where did you learn to play tennis?
Draughts is an easy game to play.
Billiards is much more popular with the young nowadays
than it used to be.
At school we played a lot of football at the playground nearby.
Boxing is sometimes an unpleasant sight to perceive.
When did you take up weightlifting?
4.5.7. The zero article with nouns school, college,
hospital, prison, etc.
Nouns school, college, university, kindergarten, class,
hospital, prison, jail, bed, table, church and sometimes market are used with the zero article if they undergo a change of
meaning and express the kind of activity performed in these institutions, the purpose which the objects serve: school, college, university – education; hospital – illness and its treatment; church –
religious service; prison, jail – punishment for the committed
crime; bed – having a rest or a sleep; table – having meals.
You should stay in bed till Mummy allows you out of it.
Jane’s father has just had an operation. He’s still in hospi-
tal.
Dinner is waiting for you. Sit down to table.
If these nouns denote concrete objects – buildings or articles
of furniture – they take the article according to the rules of its
usage with countable nouns. Compare:
My younger daughter doesn’t go to school yet.
The school I used to go is not far from my house.
My Granny goes to church every weekend.
Is there a church in this town?
There are several set phrases with the nouns of this semantic
group:
to be in bed (hospital, church, class, prison, jail, town)
to be at table (college, university, school)
to go to bed (hospital, church, class, prison, jail, town)
to come from church (college, university, school)
to come out of hospital (prison, jail)
to get out of bed
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CHAPTER 4
to stay in bed (hospital, town)
to leave college (school)
to fi nish school
to graduate from university
to leave town
to come back / return to town
to live in / out of town
to be taken to hospital
to be sent to prison
to be kept in prison.
Some other nouns can be added to this group as the speakers
also follow the tendency to differentiate in their usage the type of
activity (the purpose) and the place itself. They are such nouns
as home, work, sea, which are used with the zero article in the
following meanings: to be at home – to be in; to go home – to go
to the place of one’s permanent residence; to go to work / to be at
work – to perform one’s professional duties; to go to sea / to be at
sea – to be a marine or to travel by ship.
There’s a lot of traffi c in the morning when everybody is going
to work.
When do you usually come home from work?
From adolescence he dreamed of becoming a sailor and going
to sea.
In other cases these nouns follow the general rules of the use
of articles:
I never had a home, I never had brothers or sisters; I must and
will have them now.
The work I’ve been performing for the fi rm is tiresome and
dull.
The sea was rough that morning.
What a nice sparkling sea was unfolding in front of us un-
der a blue dome of the sky!
4.5.8. The zero article with nouns town, space,
society
The noun town is used with the zero article when it is juxtaposed to the noun country or if it means «the business centre
of the city». They are used in the following set phrases: to be in
town, to go to town, to come back to town (from the country), to live / to stay in town, to be out of town, to leave town
(= to go to the country) etc.
I live in the suburb, so every morning I have to go to town to
my offi ce.
58
CHAPTER 4
The weather was fi ne and we intended to go out of town at
the weekend.
His family permanently lives in town though they own a large
cottage in the country.
The noun space is used with the zero article in the meaning
«the empty space between the stars» (космос). In the meaning
«пространство» the noun space follows the rules of the use of
articles with abstract nouns.
Man crossed space in metallic cylinders that twisted time and
space.
As a child I used to dream of fl ying into space.
I looked at the vast spaces of green fi elds at the bottom of the
hill.
The noun society is used with the zero article in the mean-
ing «an organized community people live in». In other meanings
this noun may be used both with the defi nite and the indefi nite
article.
People should work for the benefi t of society.
Do we live in really democratic society nowadays?
But:
The young often prefer the society of their friends to that of
their relatives.
They decided to organize a new drama society in their college.
4.6. The zero article with proper names
4.6.1. The zero article with geographical names
The following groups of geographical names traditionally take
the zero article:
names of continents, regions, countries, cities, towns, vil-1)
lages:
I had so looked forward to the trip to South America.
Ice covered Canada, Scandinavia and about two thirds of
the future land of Britain.
If the king advances upon London there might be fi ghting
there.
The zero article precedes the names of regions modifi ed by the
attributes north (northern), south (southern), east (eastern),
west (western), middle, central, ancient, old: ancient Rome,
South America, Middle East, West Europe, Central Asia, etc.
Here, a vast plain stretched unbroken from eastern Britain
for two and a half thousand miles to the snowcapped Ural mountains of central Russia.
59
CHAPTER 4
names of streets, squares, bridges, parks, districts of the 2)
city: Oxford Street, Malholland Drive, Trafalgar Square,
Red Square, St. James’s Park, Hyde Park.
Names of streets modifi ed by the ordinal numerals are used
with the zero article: Fifth Avenue, 42
nd
Street, etc.
Harry was just one of them, scurrying along Lexington Ave-
nue, one of the vast army of advertising executives whose looks,
dress, and jobs are fairly interchangeable on Madison, Lexington, or Park between, say, Thirty-eighth and Fifty-ninth.
names of mountain peaks, volcanoes, separate islands, 3)
lakes (if the word lake is included in the name): Everest,
Etna, Vesuvius, Elbrus, Mount McKinley, etc; Barbados,
Cyprus, Tahiti, Sumatra, etc.; Lake Como, Lake Windermere, Silver lake, etc.:
Lake Baikal is world-wide famous for its natural beauty.
Great Britain is the largest of the British Isles.
Kazbek, situated in the Caucasus, used to be a popular spot
for soviet mountaineers.
names of bays, caps, peninsulas: Hudson Bay, Mexican 4)
Bay, Cape Horn, Labrador, Kamchatka, Taimyr, etc.:
The early history of Northeast Wisconsin was dominated by its
major geographical feature – Green Bay.
Labrador is the distinct, northerly region of the Canadian
province of Newfoundland
If the word peninsula is added the defi nite article is used: the
Balkan peninsular, the Kola peninsula, the Cape peninsula.
The Persian Gulf, in Southwest Asia, is an extension of the Indian
Ocean located between Iran (Persia) and the Arabian Peninsula.
names of airports and railway stations: Victoria Station, Wa-5)
terloo Station, Heathrow (airport), Kennedy Airport, etc.:
Many large airports are located near railway trunk routes
for seamless connection of multimodal transport, for instance
Frankfurt Airport, Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, London
Heathrow Airport, London Gatwick Airport and London
Stansted Airport.
All of them slept a little easier knowing that by nine a.m. their
employer would be on his way to La Guardia.
4.6.2. The zero article with miscellaneous proper
names
The following groups of proper names are traditionally used
with the zero article:
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