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CHAPTER 2
He goes to school.
He goes to a good (public, private, secondary) school.
She lay in bed.
She lay in a freshly made (cozy, king-size, matrimonial)
bed.
2.7. The indefinite article with proper names
When the indefi nite article precedes proper names, it alters
them to class names. The qualities of the object are made prominent and transferred to anyone possessing them.
Swithin smiled and nodding at Bosinney said: «Why, you are
quite a Monte Cristo».
If you are a Napoleon you will play a game of power, if you
are a Leonardo, you’ll play for knowledge: the stakes hardly
matter.
He is a real Rambo in negotiations, isn’t he?
Names of persons used as common nouns take the article according to the general rules.
There were two Rubenses and a Bosch at the farthest corner
of the hall.
I prefer a Collins to a Longman (dictionaries). – So do I. The
Collins I bought the other day helps me a lot in my studies.
The indefi nite article appears when names of persons are used
to denote a representative of a family:
«Florence will never, never, never be a Dombey», said Mrs.
Chick.
Being a true Eliot is not only an honour but a heavy responsibility.
Names of persons modifi ed by the adjective certain are used
with the indefi nite article.
I heard it from a certain Mr. Brown.
The adjective itself may be absent but if the noun means «a
certain person whose name is …» and thus roughly corresponds
to the Russian adjective некий or pronoun какой-то, the indefi -
nite article is used:
Their neghbour was a Miss Tilney, a nice girl, young and
pretty.
In most cases the indefi nite article is used with names of persons modifi ed by descriptive attributes:
She looked into her glass and saw a prettier Carrie than she
had seen before.
It seemed the family didn’t pay any attention to a tearful
Anna.
31
CHAPTER 2
Note. Such adjectives as old, young, poor, dear, little, honest,
lazy are usually used with the zero article.
She is the widow of poor Jack Danby.
He saw that old Robinson wanted to moralize a little.
The indefi nite article is used before geographical names if
they acquire a fi gurative meaning or if they are modifi ed by a
descriptive attribute:
I could not spend all my life crossing such a Sahara!
It was a different London, unknown to us.
32
Chapter 3
The definite article
The defi nite article indicates that the speaker considers the
object, person or phenomenon they are talking about as something already known from the contextual situation or as a part of
common (background) knowledge. The defi nite article performs
two functions – specifying and generic.
3.1. The definite article with common nouns
3.1.1. The specifying function of the definite article
The defi nite article in the specifying function shows an object (several objects) as distinct from all others of the same class.
The noun in this case denotes a particular object which is either
unique or makes a general truth or is known to the interlocutors
from the previous context.
He sailed round the world.
I dialed the number – the call was answered on the fi rst
ring.
In this meaning the defi nite article is close to the demonstrative pronouns this / that, though it doesn’t indicate a distance
between the speaker and the object they refer to:
Can I turn the (this / that) radio off?
I like nothing in the (this / that) book.
In some cases the defi nite article is semantically interchangeable with possessive pronouns especially when we wish to indicate family relations, parts of the body, articles of clothes and
other personal belongings:
She was wearing a skirt down to her heels.
«Where’s your brother?» Jane asked looking at her watch.
But in certain set-expressions the defi nite article is a must:
He took her by the hand and let her out of the room.
He was badly wounded in the leg.
He got red in the face.
I have a cold in the head.
He patted his friend on the shoulder.
The defi nite article in the specifying function serves to single out the object from the group of similar objects. It’s possible
due to 1) the limiting attribute, 2) the contextual situation (com-
33
CHAPTER 3
mon knowledge of the interlocutors), 3) the meaning of the noun
(unique objects).
3.1.1.1. The limiting attribute
The limiting attribute is thoroughly described in Chapter 1. It
can be expressed by:
the adjective in the superlative degree. 1)
Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
Honesty is the best policy.
2) the adjectives right (тот, который нужен, правильный),
wrong, same, only, very, main, principal, left, right
(правый), central, following, coming, present, former,
latter, last, next which are limiting attributes due to their
semantics.
On the last day of our journey I realized the futility of my ef-
forts.
The very thought of this place was disgusting to her.
As the central entrance was totally blocked, the fi re brigade
moved to the rear of the building.
3) ordinal numerals.
He has undertaken the third journey to the jungle but the
mysterious temple is still escaping him.
4) the pronoun other.
Where are the other students of you group?
Having lost the left-hand glove he threw out the other.
Note 1. The word combination the other day (night) means
«на днях».
I came to her the other day.
Note 2. When other is used as a noun pronoun, the defi nite
article is retained.
She held the handkerchief in her right hand, the other still
clutching the letter.
the noun in the possessive case which expresses belong-5)
ing.
Despite the warmth and brilliance of the summer’s day,
Rachel felt depressed.
6) the noun in the common case
«He might have been given the Nobel Prize at one time», the
man in the taxi thought.
7) prepositional nominal phrase.
She is the daughter to this Prospero, who is the famous duke
of Milan.
34
CHAPTER 3
He promptly opened the door to the passenger deck.
the attributive defi ning clause that corresponds in Rus-8)
sian to the phrase тот самый …, который
Is it the house you lived in as a child?
Oh, dear! We did it again! Have followed the path that took
us to the wrong place the other day!
3.1.1.2. The contextual situation
The noun takes the defi nite article when it is used in the text
for the second time or more than once and thus is distinguished
from other objects of the same kind:
He never told this story to anyone. The story of failure and
repentance.
He casually dropped a cigarette butt. The butt was immediately picked by the nearest beggar.
The noun may be used for the fi rst time but specifi ed by the
preceding or surrounding context and, consequently, it has the
defi nite article. The presence or absence of the limiting attribute
doesn’t matter here:
They clapped when he fi nally fi nished. The sympathetic applause cheered him just a little.
What an adorable toddler! – You mean the girl with a blue
ribbon?
The defi nite article is traditionally found with nouns denoting
objects which surround the speaker (both indoors and outdoors):
He opened the door leading to the study and went straight
to the cabinet.
I saw him crossing the street and disappearing round the
corner.
The defi nite article in the specifying function may indicate an
object (animate or inanimate) whose presence at a certain place
is obvious to the speakers:
I wondered if the shop-keeper could make a discount for me.
Let’s call the waiter.
I couldn’t fi nd my seat and asked the attendant to help me.
3.1.1.3. The definite article with unique objects
The defi nite article performs its specifying function due to the
semantics of the noun. Some nouns denote objects or notions that
are considered to be unique. They are always used with the defi nite article as the reference is made to the same object or notion.
The most common of them are:
the sun, the moon, the earth, the ground, the sea, the 1)
equator, the world, the universe, the cosmos, the globe, the
35
CHAPTER 3
Milky Way, the horizon, the atmosphere, the north, the
south, the east, the west.
The sun sank below the horizon.
The rain was over by then and the rainbow gleamed in all
its glory.
2) the post, the telegraph, the telephone, the radio, the Inter-
net.
I browsed through the Internet for several hours but failed to
obtain any information of the man.
The presence of the descriptive attribute doesn’t affect the
choice of the article:
In the east the frosty sky was beginning to glimmer.
He was woken by the morning sun.
Note. In certain cases, particularly in belles-lettres style, the
indefi nite article may be found with nouns denoting unique objects. The noun is the focus of the utterance and thus bears a
logical stress. The descriptive attribute is a must here:
There was such a splendid moon in a dark velvety sky that
he felt a lump in his throat.
3.1.2. The generic function of the definite article
3.1.2.1. The definite article with countable nouns
The defi nite article performs the generic function when it re-
fers a noun to a whole class of similar objects. The noun is used
in the singular form as a typical representative of that class, a
composite image of it. This usage is typical for nouns denoting
animals, plants, persons and their occupations, instruments, scientifi c terms, etc.
The amphibian is an animal able to live both on the land
and in the water.
The cuckoo is a lazy bird.
It should be noted that the generic meaning can also be ren-
dered by the indefi nite article (used with a countable noun in the
singular) and by the zero article (used with a countable noun in
the plural or with an uncountable noun). However, these three
cases are not identical while each article expresses its own shades
of meaning.
The countable noun in the singular is used with the indefi nite
article when it names any representative of a certain class of objects. This function of the indefi nite article is purely nominating:
A table is an article of furniture.
A fl ower makes a good present.
36
CHAPTER 3
Consequently, the replacement of the kind shown above is not
always possible. In the sentence «The cat and the dog have been
man’s friends for many centuries» the defi nite article is the only
option as the statement is true of the whole class of cats or dogs
and not of any individual specimen of the class.
The indefi nite article is not permissible either when invention, genre or phenomenon is meant:
Nobody knows the inventor of the wheel.
The guitar originated from Spain.
The article is a functional word of a determining nature.
All they that take the sword shall perish with the sword.
Compare:
A horse is an animal (any horse).
The wild horse is a nearly extinct species (a class of wild
horses).
Nowadays a plane is the most comfortable transport means
(any plane).
The airplane was invented by the Wright brothers (the apparatus itself, not only one sample of it).
The defi nite article is typical of formal, scientifi c style.
The plural noun with the zero article is commonly used in colloquial style to express the generic meaning:
We cannot do without wheels nowadays.
Roses are lovely fl owers.
Cats and dogs were domesticated many centuries ago.
Note. The nouns man, woman, child in the generic meaning
are traditionally used with the zero article, though they may be
found with the indefi nite article as well:
Man conquers Nature.
Woman is physically weaker than man.
Child is a socially defenseless person.
A beard is the one thing a woman cannot do better than a
man.
3.1.2.2. The definite article with collective nouns
The defi nite article in the generic function is used with collective nouns denoting social groups or classes of people united by
common features: the aristocracy, the nobility, the bourgeoisie,
the proletariat, the peasantry, the public, the press, etc.
He always had a funny story for the press.
The local nobility didn’t deign to associate with the newcomers.
The public are not admitted to the staffroom.
These nouns are used either with the singular or with the
plural verb.
37
CHAPTER 3
Note 1. The word public is used with the zero article in the
set-phrase in public:
Some notions are improper to mention in public.
Note 2. Such collective nouns as mankind and humanity are
used in the generic meaning with the zero article:
By placing men down there they are as safely isolated from
humanity as Napoleon on the island of St. Helena.
Such nouns of multitude as the gentry, the clergy, the police
are always combined with the plural verb:
The gentry were for Parliament too.
The police are still looking for the criminal.
If the generic meaning is not clearly expressed the suffi x -man
(men) is added:
Every gentleman should have a set and indeed, the gentry of
Wiltshire had widely subscribed to the project.
Edward! Does this behavior become a clergyman?!
The noun may be used with the singular verb in the generic
meaning and with the plural verb in the specifying meaning:
The Yeomanry is out already. They’ve come to kill us.
The battle didn’t last long. The Yeomanry were trained and
armed; the laborers were not.
Collective uncountable nouns denoting groups of inanimate
objects are used with the defi nite article when they are modifi ed
by a limiting attribute or specifi ed by the contextual situation.
The ordered equipment came with a week’s delay.
The wet thick foliage covered the tracks of the fugitive.
The silverware in her house is always spotless.
3.1.2.3. The definite article with substantivized adjectives
The defi nite article is to be found with fully substantivized ad-
jectives – names of nationalities, political parties, religious communities, social groups and classes: the Italians, the Democrats,
the capitalists, the Muslims, etc.
The Germans used to be considered a hard-working people.
Are they still, though?
Do the Catholics share common beliefs with the Protes-
tants?
The Tories and the Whigs are two most infl uential parties in
Great Britain.
However, the zero article should be used if individual repre-
sentatives of the group are meant:
38
CHAPTER 3
There was a fi ght between Russians and Caucasians in the
nightclub yesterday night.
Do you have any friends among Communists?
Partially substantivized adjectives denoting groups of people
united by common properties: the young, the old, the sick, the
wounded, the clever, the illiterate, the blind, the deaf, etc are always used with the defi nite article. The form of the predicate
verb is plural:
The poor were starving while the rich were enjoying themselves.
Welcome back to the land of the free and the home of the
brave.
The old are desperately helpless in this country.
If separate representatives of the group are meant a noun
should be added. In this case the use of the article is contextually
bound:
Old people are sometimes grumpy.
The badly wounded soldier was the fi rst to be attended to.
Partially substantivized adjectives denoting abstract notions:
the past, the present, the future, the good, the evil, the inevitable,
the obvious, the impossible, the supernatural, etc. are used with
the defi nite article. The form of the predicate verb is singular:
An artist can weave the improbable and the fantastic into
the normal world.
It is in the human nature to dread the inexplicable.
It’s only the present that we can feel. The past is already
over. The future is not existent yet.
Substantivized adjectives with the defi nite article in the generic function are often used in set phrases. Most common of
them are: into the open, in the original, in the negative, in the
extreme, on the contrary, out of the ordinary, out of the blue, to
take the rough with the smooth, the call of the wild, the dark and
the light, the high and mighty, to touch someone to the quick (on
the raw), etc.
3.2. The definite article with material nouns
Material nouns are usually found with the zero article (see
4.2.). The defi nite article is used to specify the noun: to denote a
defi nite quantity, a portion of a substance or to indicate a defi nite
location of it. The specifying function is performed with the help
of a limiting attribute or contextual situation.
The water out of this tap isn’t fi t for cooking.
39
CHAPTER 3
He breathed the sweet air that reminded him of his mother-
land.
The patient leather is not a good choice for the party.
3.3. The definite article with abstract nouns
Abstract nouns are commonly found with the zero article in
the function of absolute generalization (see 4.4.). The defi nite article occurs due to the contextual situation which restricts the
abstract notion to a particular instant. Specifi cation is usually
caused by a limiting attribute:
The fear she felt was hard to explain.
May I have the honor of your company at dinner?
The inevitable parting fi lled their hearts with despair.
3.4. The definite article with some semantic
groups of nouns
3.4.1. The definite article with nouns denoting
seasons
As a rule names of seasons are used with the zero article
though the defi nite article may be found as well. In general statements it replaces the zero article without any particular changes
in the semantics of the noun:
The / ... summer will be over in a week.
In this country the academic year begins in the / ... autumn.
We like to spend the / ... winter in the mountains.
Both articles are possible if the noun is the subject to such
verbs as to come, to approach, to set in, to pass, to go on, to come
to an end, to be over, etc. and an object to the verbs to like, to hate,
to spend, to wait for, to discuss, etc.
The defi nite article with nouns denoting seasons should be
used to make the reference to a particular winter, spring, summer, autumn, or to a season of a particular year. The noun is
modifi ed by a limiting attribute or specifi ed by the contextual
situation:
The spring when he turned twenty was the saddest time of
his life.
The summer of 2010 was exceptionally hot and dry.
In the autumn they moved back to London hoping it might be
easier to fi nd work.
The winter passed into the spring and the gardens on the
Riviera were ablaze with color.
40
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