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Файл:English Articles in Use. Артикли. Объяснение, употребление, тренинг
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CHAPTER 1
What a bore your boyfriend is!
It is such an unusual suggestion.
If the noun is used in the plural or it is uncountable the zero
article occurs after such and what:
What disgusting weather we are having!
It is such luck to see you here.
What nice people I made acquaintance with at the party!
Look at these kids! They are such little darlings.
E) Degree words so, as, too, how, however are always com-
bined with the adjective. The noun in this case is used with the
indefi nite article which follows the adjective:
It was so magnifi cent a sight that we could hardly gasp.
He was too deceitful a person to trust his words.
It is as strange a story as I ever heard.
Being however a clumsy rider I managed to mount on a
horseback.
If the noun is used in the plural or it is uncountable the zero
article follows so, as, too, how, however:
It is too diffi cult work for me to complete it soon.
Hers were as beautiful eyes as I ever met in a living creature.
F) The noun modifi ed by adverbs exactly and just requires
the defi nite article which is placed after the adverb:
You are exactly the person I need.
Don’t add any more salt to the soup. There’s just the right
amount in it.
It’s exactly the wrong place to spend your holidays in.
G) The pronoun many requires the indefi nite article with the
noun and is placed before the article. The noun and the link verb
are both used in the singular. This word-combination is typical
of a bookish style.
Many a tear did she drop in her unexpected solitude.
Many a time have I pledged you not to say these words to me.
The pronoun much is used in the attributive phrase too
much of. The indefi nite article is placed after it:
It was too much a pain for me to see them together.
H) The indefi nite article is used before attributive phrases a
kind of, a type of, a sort of:
He is not a kind of person
to rely on.
I know it is a sort of book you’d like to read on the way.
21
Chapter 2
The indefinite article
2.1. Forms of the indefinite article
The indefi nite article indicates that the noun is not a particu-
lar one (or ones) identifi able to the listener. It may be something
that the speaker is mentioning for the fi rst time, or its precise
identity may be irrelevant, or the speaker may be just making a
general statement about any such thing.
The indefi nite article a / an has developed from the Old Eng-
lish unstressed form of the number ān, and it still retains its
primary meaning of oneness: the indefi nite article is generally
found with countable nouns in the singular form.
The choice of a or an depends on the initial sound of the next
word. The form an is used before words that begin with a vowel
sound (even if they are spelt with an initial consonant, as in an
hour), and a before words that begin with a consonant sound
(even if they are spelt with a vowel, as in a European).
The general rules for the choice of the form are:
– a precedes a noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car;
a bike; a zoo;
– an precedes a noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an
egg; an apple; an orphan;
– a precedes a noun beginning with the consonant sound
though spelt with the vowel letter: a user; a university; a Euro-
pean; a one-way ticket; a once-in-a-lifetime experience; a one-time
hero;
– an precedes a noun starting with a silent «h»: an hour; an
heir; an honour;
– a precedes a noun starting with a pronounced «h»: a horse;
a hurricane; a house.
In some cases where «h» is pronounced in an unstressed fi rst
syllable, such as historic(al), historian, hotel, hallucination, hi-
larious, horrendous, horrifi c, the form an can be used. The use of
an before words beginning with an unstressed «h» is more com-
mon in British English than American while the Americans normally use a in all these cases. Unlike British English, American
English typically uses an before herb, since the «h» in this word
is silent for most Americans.
22
CHAPTER 2
These rules also apply when you use acronyms:
Introductory Composition at Purdue (ICaP) handles fi rst-year
writing at the University. Therefore, an ICaP memo generally
discusses issues concerning English 106 instructors.
Another case where this rule applies is when acronyms start
with consonant letters but have vowel sounds:
An MSDS (material safety data sheet) was used to record the
data.
An SPCC plan (Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures plan) will help us prepare for the worst.
If the noun is modifi ed by an adjective, the choice between a
and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:
a broken chair; an unusual problem; a European country.
2.2. The indefinite article with common
countable nouns. The functions of the
indefinite article
The indefi nite article performs the following functions: 1) classifying; 2) generic; 3) numerical.
2.2.1. The classifying function of the indefinite
article
The indefi nite article in the classifying function is used to
name an object (a thing, a person, an abstract notion), to state
what kind of it is meant. It assigns an object to a certain class
of similar objects on the basis of one or several common features.
My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas (any representative of the canine species).
Somebody call a policeman! (any offi cer who is available).
She had a house so large that an elephant would get lost
without a map (a single, non-specifi c animal).
In this meaning the indefi nite article is close to the nominal
determiners some / any / no and in most cases interchangeable
with them.
I badly need a / some pen, as I have nothing to write with.
Would you like a / some drink to refresh yourself?
Is there a / any book to read here?
However, some serves as a quantifi er rather than as a functional plural of a / an, as in There are some apples there, but not
23
CHAPTER 2
many. An apple never means more than one apple. «Give me some
apples» indicates more than one is desired but without specifying
a quantity.
Some also serves as a substitute for a singular indefi nite ar-
ticle. This usage differs from the usage of a / an because some
indicates that the identity of the noun is unknown to both the
listener and the speaker, while a / an indicates that the identity
is unknown to the listener without specifying whether or not it is
known to the speaker.
There is some person at the door (the person is indefi nite to
both the listener and the speaker)
There is a person at the door (the person is indefi nite to the
listener but there is no information as to whether the speaker
knows the person’s identity).
As the speaker just names an object, which is usually un-
known to the hearer, the indefi nite article serves to introduce a
new element in the sentence. The noun modifi ed by the article
becomes the focus of communication, the rheme of the utterance,
and thus is marked by the logical stress.
Peyton Farquhar was a well-to-do planter, of an old and
highly respected Alabama family.
A hoarse voice replied, telling him to keep out of the moon-
light.
A noun with the indefi nite article in the classifying function
may be modifi ed by a descriptive attribute used both in preposi-
tion and in postposition to the noun.
Almost at the same instant he heard a crashing sound in the
trees – a sound that died without an echo – and all fell still.
But I dare say you haven’t ever noticed a woman like me.
For types of attributes see Chapter 1.
Nouns modifi ed by the indefi nite article may be used in vari-
ous syntactic positions, those of the subject, the predicative, the
object, etc. For more details see Chapter 5.
2.2.2. The generic function of the indefinite article
The indefi nite article performs the generic function when it
refers a noun to a whole class of similar objects. Since the noun
in the singular form is viewed as a typical representative of that
class, any member of it, the article in this meaning can be substituted by the pronouns any or every.
A cheetah is considered the fastest animal of all (any / every
cheetah is faster than other animals).
24
CHAPTER 2
A cow is a domestic animal (any / every cow is a domestic
animal).
A fl ower makes a good present (any / every fl ower makes a
good present).
The generalizing meaning remains if we use the noun in the
plural form. The indefi nite article in this case is replaced by the
zero article:
Cheetahs are the fastest animals of all.
Cows are domestic animals.
Flowers make a good present.
The indefi nite article in the generic function is frequently observed in proverbs and sayings which express general truths:
A penny saved is a penny gained.
Where there is a will there is a way.
A leopard cannot change his spots.
This use of the indefi nite article is not to be mixed up with the
generic function of the defi nite article (see 3.1.2.).
2.2.3. The numerical function of the indefinite
article
When the meaning of oneness becomes predominant the indefi nite article is said to perform the numerical function. It is
clearly felt in the following cases:
with nouns denoting quantity, time, distance, measure, 1)
weight: second, minute, hour, week, month, year, mile,
inch, foot, pound, kilo, etc.
A half-hour later he returned to the camp.
At a distance of a quarter-mile before him, but apparently at
a stone’s throw, rose the gigantic rock.
A week or more passed, but he hadn’t got a job.
2) with substantivized numerals hundred, thousand, mil-
lion and nouns dozen, score, couple, pair, etc.
A pair of new shoes will certainly raise my spirits.
A hundred of shouting men attacked a defenseless store.
A thousand possibilities whirled in my brain but I was un-
able to make a decision.
3) after the negative particle not in the expressions like not a
word, not a thought, not a trace, not a tear, etc.
Not a moment did he hesitate at the door before tapping on
it lightly.
Not a word was spoken, not a sound was made.
Not a glimpse of light could be seen in the darkness.
25
CHAPTER 2
4) in phrasal verbs denoting a single action: to have a look, to
take a step, to cast a glance, to give a sigh, etc.
5) in word combinations where the preceding ordinal numeral means «one more», «another»: a second try, a second
thought, a fourth piece of cake, etc.
He asked politely for a second cup of tea.
The same rule works with the adjective last:
A last turn of the screw fi xed the door-knob in place.
6) in some set phrases, proverbs and sayings: one at a time,
a drop in the ocean, a stitch in time, a word to the wise,
etc.
A stitch in time saves nine.
A word is enough to the wise.
An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
The choice of the numeral one instead of the indefi nite article can be justifi ed only when the speaker emphasizes the exact
number of objects: just one and no more.
Only one day is left to sit for the exam as it is tomorrow morning.
One cup is enough as I’m already full to the brim.
2.3. The indefinite article with material nouns
Material nouns are usually found with the zero article (see
Chapter 4.). Sometimes owing to the metonymic change in their
meaning names of substances become countable and thus take
the indefi nite article. It may happen in the following cases:
when the noun denotes a sort, a kind or a variety of sub-1)
stance:
This is a light French wine going well with fruit and cheeses.
He made his cigarettes out of a coarse, strong tobacco which
others could hardly stand.
A Jasmine-scented tea is a popular blend with our cus-
tomers.
2) when the noun denotes a portion of food and drink:
I ordered an ice-cream for her and two coffees.
I saw Andrew with his elbows on the counter, sipping a beer
and discussing the weather with the bartender.
Why not drop at my place for a small port or a glass of sherry?
2.4. The indefinite article with abstract nouns
The indefi nite article before abstract nouns often indicates
the change in their meaning: the idea of quality remains, but the
26
CHAPTER 2
word now denotes a certain kind of quality or an instant expres-
sion of emotion, or person who bears / embodies this quality.
The simple perception of natural forms is a delight.
In this sentence, instead of the general abstract notion of delight, which cannot be singular or plural, a delight means one
thing delightful, and implies others having the same quality.
Presently he shrugged his shoulders as if throwing off a sorrow.
The offi cial report of the commander denoted rather a hope
than a result.
Abstract nouns may be modifi ed by a descriptive attribute
which brings out a certain aspect of the notion. As the use of the
indefi nite article makes the description more vivid and stylistically marked it is typical of the belles-lettres style. The attribute
may be expressed by different means (see Chapter 1).
A long silence ensued and neither man looked at the other.
It was life, a dog’s life, but life was like that.
He felt nothing but a horror creeping along his spine.
I felt a certain doubt which was quite natural in my state.
He had taken the news with an equanimity that was rather
unnatural.
Some abstract nouns become countable when they refer to per-
sons:
He had a little brother in London with him at this time, – as
great a beauty, as great a dandy, as great a villain.
I was then a youth to fortune and to fame unknown.
You are a disgrace for military tradition!
The indefi nite article is to be used with such abstract nouns as
pleasure, shame, pity, disgrace, comfort, relief, disappointment,
etc if they serve as predicatives in sentences starting with the
introductory it:
It’s a pleasure and a relief to see you here again.
It was a disappointment to know that so much effort was
wasted in vain.
The indefi nite article is a must if a noun is modifi ed by a deter-
miner such or what (in exclamatory sentences):
James was fi lled with such a cold and sudden rage that his
fi ngers got numb for a while.
What a time I was going to have when I get out of here!
If an abstract noun is used with an attribute which does not
bring out a special aspect of the notion the zero article is the only
option. For more information see Chapter 4.
27
CHAPTER 2
2.5. The indefinite article with unique objects
There are a number of nouns in English denoting objects or
phenomena which are considered to be unique. Generally they
are used with the defi nite article however the indefi nite article
is also possible when the noun in question becomes the centre of
communication (the rheme). The attention of the interlocutors is
focused on the noun which bears a logical stress and is often (but
not necessary) modifi ed by a descriptive attribute.
On such a night I always hope to see a better world.
It was a glorious night, with a great full moon gleaming in
a purple sky.
It should be mentioned that these sentences are samples of
literary style.
2.6. The indefinite article with some semantic
groups of nouns
2.6.1. The indefinite article with nouns denoting
seasons
As a rule names of seasons are used with the zero article
though the indefi nite article may be found as well. When names
of seasons are modifi ed by descriptive attributes they take the
indefi nite article. In most cases the noun is the communicative
centre of the utterance (the rheme).
A slushy winter is expected this year.
They lived through a surprisingly hot summer.
Note 1. When nouns denoting seasons are modifi ed by the
adjectives late and early they take the zero article. These adjectives are not descriptive attributes as they serve to indicate the
time of the year more precisely. Thus, early spring means the fi rst
month of spring, late autumn shows the end of the season, etc.
I’m tired to death of Europe and hope to come back in early
fall.
The crowd at the embankment was as many-coloured as the
fl owers in late spring.
2.6.2. The indefinite article with nouns denoting
parts of the day
The indefi nite article is found with nouns day, night, morning, afternoon, noon, daytime, evening, twilight, dusk,
nightfall, midnight, sunrise, sunset if they are modifi ed by
descriptive attributes.
28
CHAPTER 2
On a lovely still evening we made a stroll along the
seashore.
The noun is often made the focus of communication, and thus
bears the logical stress.
A stormy night was followed by a bright dawn.
It was an unpromising afternoon, already half-dark and
extremely boring.
Note 1. If these nouns are modifi ed by the adjectives late and
early they take the zero article.
The audition was concluded by early afternoon and the
minor supporting part was his!
2.6.3. The indefinite article with names of meals
The indefi nite article is used with names of meals (breakfast,
lunch, luncheon, dinner, supper, tea, high / meat tea) if
they are modifi ed by descriptive attributes. The indefi nite article
serves to bring out a special aspect of the noun, a particular
quality of it.
They planned a special dinner for this occasion.
Rising with the sun and snatching a hasty breakfast he was
early at work.
In this case the metonymic change of meaning takes place and
names of meals become countable nouns. They may denote:
a party (dinner party, tea party):1)
My own brother looked to me a total stranger when I met him
at a dinner at the Pongs.
I had lately returned to London from the continent and gladly
took her invitation to a tea.
the food served and / or eaten:2)
Would you like a light French breakfast or a substantial
British one?
Bored to death by their talking politics she went to the kitchen
to prepare a cold lunch.
portions of food served at restaurants, cafes, bars, etc. 3)
In this case the indefi nite article performs a numerical function.
The presence or absence of a descriptive attribute is not relevant
here:
In this hotel we took a room with a breakfast.
To show his gratitude he even bought me a dinner at a most
expensive restaurant.
29
CHAPTER 2
2.6.4. The indefinite article with names of diseases
The indefi nite article may be used with nouns which are not
special medical terms but still indicate some physical condition of
a person. The use of a descriptive attribute is optional here.
The day after the stag party he suffered from a splitting
headache.
The medical history of the man showed that he had suffered a
coronary attack earlier that year.
Watch up! Or you’ll get a boil on your hand!
Memorize the following expressions with the indefi nite
article:
to have a cold
to have a cough
to have a heart attack BUT! To have … heart trouble
to have a sore throat
to have a bruise
to have a boil
to have a duodenal (gastric) ulcer
to have a headache
to have a toothache
to have a stomachache
to have a backache
to have an earache
to have a pain in the back, in the arm, etc.
to have a high / low blood pressure
Note. The indefi nite article before the compound nouns
with the component -ache is typical of the American English.
The noun headache is used this way in both variants of the
language.
2.6.5. The indefinite article with nouns bed, school,
college, university, hospital, church, prison,
jail, table
These nouns are used with the indefi nite article when they
denote a building or an object. The article is chosen in accordance
with the general rules for countable nouns.
This city is like a prison for me – all grey and gloomy.
Is there a school in the vicinity? – Yes, there certainly is, but
not the one you might want to send your kids to.
It should be noted that the use of a descriptive attribute destroys
the idiomatic meaning of the phrases in question. Compare:
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