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126 Wild Edible Plants
TABLE 4.3 (Continued)
ACTIVITY SPECIES MODEL REFERENCE
N. ruderalis Buch
(synonym N.
hindostana
N. bodeana Inhibition of α- amylase in vitro. The
N. italica Inhibition of α- amylase
Hepatoprotection N. cataria L. The effect of essential oil on
N. paulsenii Briq. The effect of the extract on CCl4-
Inhibition of α- amylase in vitro (Karakoti
et al.,
2022)
(Sharifi- Rad
glucose uptake assay by the yeast
cells
et al.,
2024)
(Acquaviva
glucosidaseactivity in vitro
et al.,
2023)
(Tan et al.,
acetaminophen- induced liver
2019
injury in Kunming mice
The effect of essential oil on CCl4
induced hepatocellular injury in
(Vukić et al.,
2022)
male albino Wistar rats
(Hanif et al.,
induced hepatocellular injury in
2023b)
male albino rats
4.3 CATNIP IN BEVERAGE
4.3.1 Herbal Teas Based on Catnip
Herbal hot drinks (herbal teas) made from aromatic plants have been used in Europe
long before the introduction of true tea from Camellia sinensis L. Herbal tea typically
consists of one or several types of plants that undergo infusion or maceration. Usually,
different parts of the plants are utilized, such as leaves, stems, fruits, owers, seeds, and
bark. They can have invigorating, calming, or health- promoting effects, depending on
the composition and properties of the plant material. Modern herbal teas are becoming
increasingly popular worldwide due to various biological properties such as aroma,
avor, antioxidant properties, and others, as well as because of cultural, religious
principles, and complementary effects. Due to the high caffeine content in regular tea,
consumers oriented towards a healthy lifestyle are increasingly turning to herbal teas
as alternatives to traditional caffeinated beverages. Consumption of herbal teas also
reduces health risks associated with uorides (Das et al., 2017). Furthermore, the variety of herbal teas allows consumers to choose beverages that match their individual
taste preferences and health needs. The growing awareness of the potential benets
of herbal drinks stimulates scientic research in this direction aimed at determining
their impact on the human body and the mechanisms of their action. Recent studies
The Catnip Plant for Beverage Production 127
indicate that herbal teas contain a variety of natural compounds, such as avonoids,
catechins, essential oils, and other biologically active substances, which have potential antioxidant, anti- inammatory, antibacterial, and immunomodulatory properties
(Tolun & Altintas, 2019). These properties make herbal teas attractive for consumption
as a means of health maintenance and prevention of various diseases. Herbal beverages
are used as a natural part of dietary culture in countries where traditional medicine
is widely practiced (Chandrasekara & Shahidi, 2018). Herbal teas are common social
beverages in the culinary cultures of India, Sri Lanka, and China. The popularization
of movements such as Slow Food and Local Food, as well as the interest of chefs in
offering new avors, creates opportunities for the growth of the assortment of herbal
beverages in Europe and North America.
The most popular family of plants traditionally used to prepare herbal hot drinks in
Europe is Lamiaceae (Damyanova et al., 2016; Sõukand et al., 2013). The most common
herbal teas in this region are based on various types of mint and thyme, but consumer
preferences vary depending on the region. In China, 759 plant species are used as
herbal teas. Leguminosae is the dominant botanical family with 59 species, followed by
Compositae with 51 species, and Lamiaceae with 46 species (Fu et al., 2018).
Herbal tea made from catnip has been used for centuries as a soothing beverage.
Dugas in his article “Beverages in Sickness” writes, “catnip tea is a favorite prescription of mothers for crying babes, under the impression that the cries always indicate the
existence of colic, and that catnip is a specic for this” (Dugas, 1855). The author notes
that such tea calms infants, but whether this is due to relief from colic or sedative properties was not determined at that time. Today, it is known that catnip tea exhibits both
effects (Sharma et al., 2019). Hot drinks made from catnip are also traditionally used
in China (Liu et al., 2009). It is reported that Native American tribes traditionally used
catnip to make tea, which they drank several times a day to treat their ailments, even
after the spread of Western medicine. African American slaves used catnip for the same
purpose, especially in the Appalachian Mountains, and this practice remains common
among African Americans for treating various ailments such as infant colic and digestive
issues (Reichert et al., 2018). Mainly, catnip tea is prepared from N. cataria L. However,
other Nepeta species are used as medicinal teas in many parts of the world. N. ucrainica
L. is used as a herbal tea in Kazakhstan (Akbay et al., 2002), N. trachonitica as tea in
Turkey (Köksal et al., 2017), infusion and beverage obtained from N. crispa are used in
Iran (Hussain et al., 2015).
As far as is known, catnip tea does not cause side effects (Manteiga et al., 1997;
Sharma et al., 2019). In scientic and popular literature, there are indications that
catnip may affect human consciousness similarly to how it affects cats (Grognet, 1990).
Although there is limited evidence to support this concept, there is a documented case
of central nervous system depression in a child after consuming a large amount of catnip
(Osterhoudt et al., 1997). The most likely toxic effects may be attributed to the essential
oil of catnip, of which there is little in hot infusions. Mollova et al. (2023) identied six
allergens listed in EU Directive 1223/ 2009 as known aromatic substances that
can cause allergic reactions. These are β- citronellol (26.31%), geraniol (15.92%), geranial (11.58%), nerol (11.45%), limonene (0.16%), and β- linalool (0.15%). Therefore,
consumers sensitive to such allergens should avoid consuming related products, and
manufacturers should warn consumers about potential consequences. Overall, the US
128 Wild Edible Plants
FIGURE 4.2 Commercially available herbal teas with Nepeta cataria L.
FIGURE 4.3 Commercially available herbal blends with catnip.
Environmental Protection Agency categorizes rened oil of N. cataria L. as Class III for
primary eye irritation and acute oral toxicity, and as Class IV for acute dermal irritation
and acute inhalation irritation.
Commercially available herbal teas are produced in the form of dried and chopped
plant parts, sometimes in tea bags. Modern companies specializing in organic or healthy
foods offer catnip tea made from N. cataria L. and position it as a relaxing and soothing
beverage, also recommending it for infant colic (Figure 4.2).
The natural properties of catnip may help alleviate pain in the digestive system and
provide a calming effect, adding to the attractiveness of catnip as an ingredient in herbal
tea (Gabrani et al., 2022). Therefore, herbal tea blends based on catnip are quite popular
today. Some companies offer herbal tea compositions for improving sleep or relaxation,
which include catnip and other herbs (Figure 4.3).
The dependency of the content of bioactive compounds in beverages on the
method, temperature, and time of steeping is well known (Hajiaghaalipour et al., 2016).
However, we did not nd scientic data specically regarding catnip tea. In light of
this, further research and experiments aimed at rening the optimal methods of using
catnip in herbal beverages and elucidating the mechanisms of action will be crucial for
establishing a scientic basis for natural methods of reducing disease risk and improving
overall health.
The Catnip Plant for Beverage Production 129
4.3.2 Alcoholic Beverages with Catnip
The use of aromatic plants and spices for creating alcoholic beverages has a long history dating back to ancient times in the Mediterranean. Perhaps the oldest known herbal
liqueurs originated in Ancient Greece. There is evidence that Hippocrates, one of the
earliest known physicians, used maceration of plant herbs and spices in wine to create
a avorful drink known as “Hippocratic wine” (Tonutti & Liddle, 2010). Adding a wide
variety of herbs and spices to wine was a common practice in Mesopotamia, Greece,
and Rome as early as the 18th century (Harutyunyan & Malfeito- Ferreira, 2022). In
the past, alcoholic herbal infusions were used to improve digestion and overall wellbeing. They were considered benecial for stimulating appetite, relieving heaviness in
the stomach, and supporting the gastrointestinal tract. They were also used to improve
liver function and relax muscles.
The composition and formulation of these tinctures have been carefully worked
out empirically for years. Although alcoholic beverages are often associated with negative effects, they are part of the traditional culture of many communities. The concept
of using bitter and aromatic plants in drinks and dishes to treat digestive problems is
universal and ancient. Consumption of alcoholic beverages during meals because it is
pleasurable, remains a formed habit of behavior, which combines different foods for
the positive experience of eating (McMullen, 2024). The results of many studies show
the existence of a positive relationship between moderate consumption of alcoholic
beverages, well- being, and health (Fiore et al., 2020).
Modern herbal bitters and liqueurs are descendants of ancient healing drinks.
Many of them are still produced according to ancient recipes that are kept in strict
secrecy. The most famous commercial herbal liqueurs contain complex compositions
of spicy and aromatic raw materials. Liqueurs or bitters can include herbs, owers,
roots, bark, fruits, spices, nuts. One of the oldest world- famous herbal liqueurs is the
French Benedictine, which was created in 1510. It is known that the composition of the
liqueur includes 27 components, which are believed to include juniper, saffron, arnica,
lemon balm, tea, thyme, coriander, cloves, lemon, vanilla, orange peel, aloe, angelica,
honey, and cinnamon. There are 130 different herbs in French Green Chartreuse. The
German liqueur Jägermeister is made with 56 different herbs and spices, including
licorice, anise, ginger, juniper berries, and citrus peel. Italian Galliano contains 30
different Mediterranean herbs. Becherovka Czech herbal liqueur contains a balanced
mixture of about 20 herbs and spices. Herbal liqueurs have been made and consumed
for centuries in various European countries. These liqueurs are usually made by macerating aromatic raw materials in a water- alcohol mixture (wine or wine distillate), adding
plant extracts to distilled alcohol, or combining some of these methodologies (VázquezAraújo et al., 2013).
In the production of avored wines, the extraction of aromatic compounds from
raw materials is also carried out with alcohol solutions of different concentrations,
which allows the extraction of biologically active substances of various nature from
plant raw materials. Aromatized wine is traditional in many European countries with
the tradition of winemaking. The most famous avored wines are vermouths, the industrial production of which began in Italy at the end of the 18th century (Tonutti & Liddle,
2010). In Serbia, a special avored dessert wine – bermet – is produced. It includes
130 Wild Edible Plants
26 medicinal herbs (Gorjanović et al., 2020). Vermouths are a popular type of wine in
Europe and the US, and their popularity continues to grow (Liang et al., 2021). This can
be partly explained by the interest of consumers not only in beautiful tastes, but also
in the perception of vermouths as functional products. Vermouths have antibacterial,
antioxidant properties that contribute to strengthening the health and well- being of consumers (Morya et al., 2024).
The only alcoholic beverage with a natural green color is considered to be the
French Green Chartreuse. It is extremely difcult to preserve the natural green color of
the raw materials in food products, since the natural coloration of plants is associated
with the very labile pigment chlorophyll. Chlorophyll, when subjected to thermal processing and exposure to light, quickly converts into pheophytin. Pheophytin gives
thermally processed raw materials a brown- olive color. Since dried plants are used for
preparing infusions, extracts, and liqueurs to ensure microbiological stability and convenient storage, the color of the nal product is most often yellow- brown to brown.
Additionally, the possibility of processing fresh plant raw materials occurs seasonally. However, for crafted or premium- class products, it is quite acceptable to prepare
alcoholic beverages from freshly harvested plant material. This approach ensures the
production of beverages with a green color, as green is well preserved by alcohol.
Consequently, the physicochemical characteristics of beverages made from raw and
dried materials will have signicant differences.
Since in the vast majority of cases the composition of herbs used for the production
of avored wines and liqueurs is kept secret, it is quite difcult to say whether they contain plants of the genus Nepeta. Even when analyzing known recipes of alcoholic herbal
drinks in the case of Mentha spicata, researchers can adopt the broad species concept
(species sensu lato) because it is more suitable for working with ethnobotanical data
(Egea et al., 2015).
However, when developing new spicy- aromatic compositions for the creation of
various alcoholic beverages, their composition is known. In Ukraine, some technologies
of vermouth production were developed, in which herbal composition included plants
of the genus Nepeta (Tkachenko, 2001). Red dry grape vermouth “Magnys” is prepared
using a composition of six spicy- aromatic plants: wormwood Artemisia scoparie, catnip
N. cataria var. citriodora, immortelle Helichrysum italicum (Roth) G. Don, Elsholtzia
stauntonii, yarrow Achillea colina L., tansy Tanacetum vulgare L. It is described that the
taste of the developed vermouth is pleasant, the bouquet is well expressed, bright with
light balsamic and resinous tones. Another strong grape vermouth “Bouquet of Crimea”
is prepared on the basis of 14 different herbs, which also include catnip N. cataria
var. citriodora. Vermouth has a slight bitterness, clove- cinnamon, wormwood tones
with a citrus shade. It was established that out of 57 aroma- forming compounds, 19
components inuence the formation of the specic bouquet of the aromatized drink
“Bouquet of Crimea”: ethers, terpene alcohols, phenols, and mainly thymol, carvacrol,
methylisoeugenol, and α- thujone. Grape avored strong drink “Tavr” contains 25% vol.
alcohol and is prepared on the basis of a composition of 11 spicy- aromatic plants, bee
honey, propolis. The spicy- aromatic composition also includes catnip N. cataria var.
citriodora.
Possibilities of utilizing N. mussinii, N. transcaucasica, N. cataria, N. sibirica
in the production of white vermuths were studied (Kovtun- Vodyanytska et al., 2014).
The Catnip Plant for Beverage Production 131
Wine- alcohol infusions were prepared by the maceration method – a one- time treatment
of plant raw materials with a wine- alcohol solution. Chopped and sorted plants were
poured with a wine- alcohol solution with a strength of 50% in a volume ratio of 1 to
10. According to the results of physico- chemical parameters and sensory evaluation, the
samples with N. mussinii and composition of N. mussinii, N. cataria, and Vitex were
dened as best.
Kuzmin et al. (2020) developed infusions from spicy and aromatic raw materials
for the restaurant business and evaluated their antioxidant capacity. The actual
measured redox potential of infusions was established – from 117.0 mV (Elsholtzia
stauntonii Benth) to 134.0 mV (N. transcaucasica Grossch). Water- alcohol infusions
from plant raw material N. transcaucasica Grossch with volume % of ethanol of 40%
showed a redox potential of 100 mV. Water- alcohol infusions from eight types of spicyaromatic raw materials had values of sensory indicators from 9.50 to 9.69 points. The
highest value – 9.69 points given to N. transcaucasica Grossch infusion: color – light
brown; the taste – minty; the aroma – soft, pleasant, sweet. Another work focused on
the assessment of the possibility of re- using the waste of vegetable spicy- aromatic
raw materials, which are formed after maceration, in the technology of liquor- vodka
products (Kuzmin et al., 2020). Authors found that during the re- using of maceration
waste of N. transcaucasica Grossch it is possible to obtain water- alcohol infusions
of intense aroma but weakly saturated in color. It is claimed that such water- alcohol
infusions are characterized by a high content of biologically active substances and have
antioxidant properties. Extraction with alcohol or water- alcohol mixtures allows the
extraction of signicantly more biologically active substances from spicy and aromatic
raw materials, and also extends the shelf- life of the drink. Ethanol- based extracts of
N. cataria showed the highest content of phenolic compounds compared to aqueous
extracts (Nadeem et al., 2022).
4.3.3 Specic Aspects of the Catnip Extracts’
Preparation
It is known that, in general, increasing the concentration of the extractant enhances
the efciency of extraction from raw materials. However, the optimal concentration is
considered to be 50%, since further increasing the strength enriches the infusions with
some terpene compounds, resins, and waxes, which precipitate in beverages, causing
opacity (Tkachenko, 2001). This is, however, applicable to extraction processes from
dry plant material. Literature data on the extraction processes of fresh plant material
are limited. It is shown that increasing the ratio of raw material to extractant improves
the efciency of extraction, and a ratio of 1:10 is most commonly used. However, in
the production of tinctures from fresh plant material, a ratio of 1:5 is used (Stéphane
et al., 2021).
To address the optimization of the extraction process from the raw material of
Nepeta species, several experiments were conducted by our group. In the Southern
Steppe of Ukraine, all four Ukrainian species of wild catnip grow, but N. cataria L. and
N. parviora M. Bieb. are the most common. Thus, the aerial parts of wild Nepeta
cataria L. plants, collected during the owering period in the Southern Steppe zone
132 Wild Edible Plants
of Ukraine (Zaporizhzhia region, (46.821124, 35.264201)), were used for research.
The plants were collected during the owering period when the essential oil content
in the leaves was at its maximum. The aerial parts (herbs) were harvested 10 cm above
the ground without using the coarse (woody) parts of the plant, then raw material was
chopped into pieces about 20 mm in size and subjected to maceration.
To determine the effect of the water- to- alcohol ratio in the extractant on the extraction of dry soluble substances, various aqueous- alcoholic mixtures were used for the
maceration of catnip, namely, 30% alcohol by volume (ABV), 40% ABV, and 55%
ABV. Next, the effect of the raw material- to- extractant ratio on the extraction process was determined. Extraction was performed with aqueous- alcoholic mixtures at
raw material- to- extractant ratios of 1:5, 1:10, and 1:20. The mixtures were infused for
10 days in closed glass containers protected from the light. After obtaining the nal
extract, the content of dry soluble substances and the total polyphenolic compounds
were analyzed as indicators that mostly characterize the presence of biologically
active substances. The amount of polyphenolic substances was determined as previously described (Burdina & Priss, 2016). Briey, the method comprises the complexation reaction of polyphenols with a Folin– Denis reagent and the formation of colored
substances, followed by the determination of the optical density of solution.
During the extraction of dry soluble substances from fresh raw material, the lowest
content was observed in the extract with a 30% ABV aqueous- alcoholic mixture and a
raw material- to- extractant ratio of 1:20, with a value of 9.40%. The highest value of this
indicator (14.40%) was in the extract with a raw material- to- extractant ratio of 1:5 and
40% ABV in the extractant (Figure 4.4).
As the alcohol concentration increases to 55% ABV, the extraction of dry soluble
substances becomes more difcult (Figure 4.4). This likely occurs due to the xation of
cell walls by the alcohol, which includes proteins and pectic substances, affecting the
permeability of cell membranes and leading to a slower extraction process. Therefore,
FIGURE 4.4 Content of dry soluble substances in extracts from Nepeta cataria L. using for
extraction aqueous- alcoholic mixture with different alcohol by volume (ABV) ratio.
The Catnip Plant for Beverage Production 133
TABLE 4.4 The total phenolic content in extracts from Nepeta cataria
TOTAL PHENOLIC CONTENT,
MG/ 100 G OF EXTRACT
AFTER 6 MONTHS
OF STORAGE
ALCOHOL STRENGTH
RAW MATERIALTO- EXTRACTANT
RATIO
AFTER MACERATION
30% ABV 1:5 268.23±3.25 257.58±2.95
1:10 246.83±3.26 234.51±3.13
1:20 216.41±3.23 207.73±3.68
40% ABV 1:5 283.42±3.54 269.29±2.26
1:10 275.84±3.54 264.82±2.54
1:20 268.02±3.52 254.58±3.72
55% ABV 1:5 295.03±1.69 283.25±2.08
1:10 284.80±3.05 276.28±2.23
1:20 255.06±2.58 247.43±2.91
Mean 265.96 255.05
LSD
05
LSD05, least significant difference at the 5% significance level.
1.24 1.17
further increasing the alcohol concentration in aqueous- alcoholic mixtures for extracting
dry soluble substances is impractical.
Additionally, it was found that the highest content of phenolic compounds can also
be obtained with a raw material- to- extractant ratio of 1:5 (Table 4.4).
The difference in the total polyphenolic compounds in the extracts was statistic-
ally signicant between the experiment variations, ranging from a maximum value of
295.03 mg/ 100 g in the extract with 55% ABV at a 1:5 ratio to a minimum of 216.41 mg/
100g in the extract with 30% ABV at a 1:20 ratio. The content of phenolic compounds
in all extracts slightly decreased after 6 months of storage. This decrease averaged no
more than 4.3%, indicating the potentially high biological value of the extracts even
after storage.
On the other hand, to conrm the stability of the composition of the obtained
extracts, there is a lack of data on the content of individual phenolic compounds. The
total polyphenolic compounds may include their oxidized forms, which do not exhibit
biological activity. Therefore, for the use of Nepeta cataria L. in the production of
alcoholic beverages, further research is needed, including nding the composition and
properties of extracts, as well as the technological aspects of the extraction process and
the crafting of the nal product.
Furthermore, the persistent demand from manufacturers for wild raw materials for the
production of alcoholic beverages can lead to intensive harvesting in natural conditions,
which threatens their populations and biodiversity as a whole. One way to address this
issue is to develop agronomic technologies for cultivating plants of the Nepeta genus
under controlled conditions. This will not only help preserve wild populations but also
ensure a stable supply of raw materials for potential products with enhanced biological
value. Therefore, it is necessary to develop scientically based cultivation technologies
for these plants, which will ensure stable and sustainable production.
134 Wild Edible Plants
4.4 CONCLUSIONS
Plants of the genus Nepeta are a valuable source of a complex of biologically active
compounds with proven antimicrobial and antioxidant effects and a number of
pharmacological properties. The benecial characteristics of these plants, highlighted
in this study, justify using these plants as functional food products or functional
ingredients of food products with new consumption properties. The favorable avor
and aromatic prole of catnip are unquestionably advantageous for its use in beverage production. However, the variety of species and the difference in the chemical
prole of these plants still require additional research to understand their impact
on the human body and predict changes that occur as a result of technological processing. Further search for optimal methods of processing and technological application of these plants will allow their potential to be maximized to provide useful
products for consumers.
Increased interest in these plants, however, may lead to increased harvesting from
the wild, which may threaten their natural populations and biodiversity. One of the ways
to prevent this problem is the development of agricultural technologies for growing
Nepeta plants in culture conditions. This will not only preserve wild populations, but
also ensure stable access to raw materials for potential products. Developing cultivation procedures for these plants can contribute to the establishment of environmentally friendly and efcient cultivation methods that will support biodiversity and ensure
stable and sustainable production.
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