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236 Wild Edible Plants
FIGURE 8.9 Visualized results of the check- all- that- apply (CATA) analysis of the carob
pastry sauces.
Control – classic chocolate sauce; SCP – sauce with carob pulp; SCS – sauce with carob
seeds; SCSP – sauce with mix of carob seeds and pulp.
8.5 CONCLUSIONS
Investigating the bioactive prole of carob from various regions including Moldova,
Italy, Algeria, and Spain reveals signicant geographic variations, with Moldovan carob
showing notably higher concentrations of biologically active compounds. Analytical
methods, such as UV/ Vis spectral analysis, conrm the stability and potency of these
bioactive compounds during processing. Carob’s comprehensive nutrient and bioactive
proles underscore its potential to enhance the nutritional and functional quality of
diverse food products, contributing to improved health outcomes and meeting contemporary dietary trends.
Carob’s nutritional prole is robust: its pods are composed of approximately 48–
56% soluble sugars, 3– 4% protein, and 0.4– 0.8% lipids. The high dietary ber content,
approximately 6.7 grams per ounce of powder, supports digestive health and weight
management. Essential minerals such as calcium (up to 450.67 mg/ 100 g DW), magnesium (186.44 mg/ 100 g DW), and iron (7.829 mg/ g DW) signicantly bolster various
physiological functions. Moreover, carob is rich in bioactive compounds, including
polyphenols and avonoids, which mitigate oxidative stress and reduce risks associated
with chronic diseases.
Edible Wild Carob as a Source of Nutrients in Food Production 237
Innovative applications of carob in food production, such as carob powder replacing
cocoa powder, provide a low- fat, caffeine- free alternative with inherent sweetness,
thereby reducing the need for additional sugar. Carob also shows promise in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries due to its antioxidative, anti- inammatory, and moisturizing properties. Experimental carob- based pastry sauces highlight carob’s potential
in functional foods. These sauces, formulated with carob powder, exhibit signicantly
higher mineral content, reduced caloric value from 230.7 kcal/ 100 g to approximately
85.1– 88.9 kcal/ 100 g, and enhanced antioxidant activity compared to traditional cocoabased sauces.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research was supported by Institutional Project 020405 “Optimizing food processing technologies in the context of the circular bioeconomy and climate change”,
Bio- OpTehPAS, being implemented at the Technical University of Moldova.
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Antioxidants
from Wild Plants
9
in Meat and Meat
Products
Natalia Bozhko, Vasyl Pasichnyi,
Vasyl Tischenko, Andrii Marynin, and
Khrystyna Vasylyshyn
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Wild plants contain a wide range of biologically active compounds that often
have adaptive signicance for the plant, providing protection from pests, diseases,
competitors, and stressful situations, are responsible for the smell, taste, color of plants,
and also take part in attracting pollinators and interacting with the environment. Some
of these compounds may have potential value for humans as medicines or nutritional
supplements.
Phytocompounds are classied according to their chemical composition and functional properties. The main classes of phytocompounds include avonoids, which have
antioxidant properties and are potentially benecial to human health; terpenoids that
include essential oils, which give plants a characteristic aroma, have medicinal properties and are used in phytotherapy; alkaloids, nitrogenous compounds that often have
a strong pharmacological effect on the human body; phenolic acids having antioxidant and anti- inammatory properties; saponins, which are amphiphilic glycosidic secondary metabolites with foaming properties using in the production of cleaning agents.
Biologically active compounds of wild plants are very diverse in their chemical
structure, physicochemical properties, and biological functions. Each plant contains a
243DOI: 10.1201/9781003486794-9
244 Wild Edible Plants
unique set of phytocompounds, research of which opens up new opportunities for the
use of wild ora in food, drugs, and industrial products.
9.2 PLANTS AS SOURCES OF BIOACTIVE
COMPOUNDS WITH ANTIOXIDANT
ACTIVITY
9.2.1 Polyphenols as Secondary Metabolites
of Wild Plants
Plants contain a lot of different bioactive ingredients with medicinal properties and antioxidant potential. Various compounds, such as vitamin E, vitamin C, polyphenols, and
carotenoids, serve the endogenous antioxidant defense system of the human body as
exogenous sources (Barros et al., 2016).
Vitamin E, a fat- soluble vitamin present in biological membranes, is part of
the endogenous defense system against random radical oxidation in cells and plays
an important role in preventing lipid peroxidation. Reactive oxygen species, such as
hydroxyl or peroxyl radical, react with vitamin E to form a tocopheryl radical, which in
turn regenerates by vitamin C (Jungert & Neuhäuser- Berthold, 2020).
Phenolic compounds, plant’s secondary metabolites, play important roles in
growth and reproduction, providing defence against ultraviolet radiation, pathogens,
and predators. They possess antioxidant activity, and their use as natural antioxidants
in food production is a promising alternative for synthetic ones, especially given
the restrictions on the application of butyloxyanisole and butyloxytoluene in food
(Mizobuchi et al., 2022).
Polyphenols are phenylpropanoids that are synthesized by plants in unfavorable conditions, such as the presence of pathogens or adverse climatic conditions (Di
Lorenzo et al., 2021).
More than 8,000 phenolic molecules have been identied, which must contain at
least one aromatic ring and one or more hydroxyl (―OH) groups. Polyphenols are usually divided into avonoids, stilbenes, and phenolic acids. Flavonoids commonly found
in foods are anthocyanins, avonols, avan- 3- ols, avones, isoavones, avanones, and
stilbenes (Durazzo et al., 2019).
9.2.2 Characteristics and Functions of Flavonoids
Flavonoids are one of the most common groups of phenolic compounds, derivatives of
benzo- γ- pyrone, based on the phenylpropane skeleton. Most of them can be considered
as chromone or chromane derivatives containing 2, 3, or 4 aryl radicals. Most of the
avonoids contained in food products are combined with sugars, acids, or alcohols.
Antioxidants from Wild Plants in Meat and Meat Products 245
Flavonoids are divided into the following subclasses: anthocyanins, avanols,
avanones, avonols, avonones, and isoavones. According to research (Adriouch
et al., 2018; Akhlaghi et al., 2018; Al- Khayri et al., 2022; Runo et al., 2021), avonoids
have a wide range of pharmacological effects, including antioxidant, antibacterial,
hepatoprotective, anti- inammatory, and antihyperlipidemic properties.
Chemically, avonoids are phenolic compounds having the chemical structure of
phenylbenzopyran with a C6– C3– C6 carbon skeleton connected to a chromane ring,
to which three or more hydroxyl groups are attached in most of these compounds
(Rana & Gulliya, 2019). Flavonoids can occur as aglycones or conjugated with
sugars and/ or organic acids (Dias et al., 2021). Flavonoids, derived from the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine, are C15 compounds located in
three rings (C6– C3– C6). Such chemical modications of the avonoid molecule
as hydroxylation, alkalization, or glycosylation change the primary structure of the
molecule. The change of chemical groups in the structures of avonoids correlates
with the corresponding biological and chemical properties and bioavailability (Shen
et al., 2022).
The main biological activity of avonoids, which is widely studied, is their antioxidant properties, which help prevent free radical damage by scavenging reactive
oxygen species, activating antioxidant enzymes, inhibiting oxidases (xanthine oxidase,
cyclooxygenase, lipoxygenase) and reducing α- tocopheryl radicals. Flavonoids increase
uric acid levels, metal chelating activity and antioxidant activity of low molecular weight
compounds to mitigate oxidative stress (D’Amelia et al., 2018).
Depending on the degree of oxidation and hydroxylation of the C6– C3– C6 propane
skeleton and the location of the phenyl radical, avonoids are divided into several groups
(Shah & Smith, 2020). Flavones are colorless or slightly yellow, their hydroxylated
forms are found in tansy and chamomile owers (avone apigenin). The phenyl group
is located in the 2nd position.
Isoavones have a phenyl group in the 3rd position. They are contained in the roots of
the eld steelhead (Ononis arvensis).
Flavonols have white to pale- yellow colors. They differ from avones by the
presence of the OH group in the 3rd position.
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