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156 Wild Edible Plants
compounds and antioxidant activities among berries, it is possible to nd some general
observations. All berries are excellent source of vitamin C, while dog rose contains it in
extremely high amounts. The recommended dietary allowance of ascorbic acid is 60 mg
per day, but the content of vitamin C in different berries ranges from 10 to some thousand mg per 100 g of fresh weight (Table 5.1).
There are limited data according to carotenoid content in wild berries. Carotenoids,
fat- soluble color pigments, are usually found in yellow- orange berries. Among wild
berries, rose hips, along with rowan, contain the largest amount of β- carotene. The daily
reference intake for vitamin A is 800 µg (Regulation EU, 2011), while 1 µg of retinol is
equivalent to 6 µg of β- carotene or 12 µg of α- carotene (FAO/ WHO, 1988).
The main carotenoids found in berries are provitamin A carotenoids (β- carotene,
β- cryptoxanthin, and α- carotene) and lycopene, lutein, and zeaxanthin, which are not
converted into vitamin A, so, they do not possess provitamin A activity. However,
lutein and zeaxanthin are important carotenoids having various pharmacological
activities, including better vision, while lycopene is known for its strong antioxidant
activity. Berries differ by carotenoid content. Thus, carotenoid composition, %, was
as follows: strawberry: β- carotene, 19.3, and lutein, 80.7; blueberry: β- carotene, 16.9,
β- cryptoxanthin, 1.8, lutein, 79.3, zeaxanthin, 0.5; raspberry: β- carotene, 25.5, α-
carotene, 6.5, β- cryptoxanthin, 1.6, lutein, 86.5, zeaxanthin, 3.0 (Marinova & Ribarova,
2007); for lingonberry: β- carotene, 29.3 and lutein, 70.7; cranberry: β- carotene, 40.0
and lutein, 60; for cloudberry: β- carotene, 59.3, α- carotene, 25.0, and lutein, 15.7;
blueberry: β- carotene, 15.3 and lutein, 84.7; strawberry: β- carotene, 22.3 and lutein,
77.7; raspberry: β- carotene, 6.7, α- carotene, 13.6, and lutein, 79.7 (Heinonen et al.,
1989); for bird cherry: β- carotene, 24.3, α- carotene, 0.4, lutein, 59.4; violaxanthin, 8.9;
antheraxanthin, 0.4; neoxanthin, 3.1; blackthorn: β- carotene, 25.4, α- carotene, 0.4,
lutein, 55.0; violaxanthin, 8.9; antheraxanthin, 0.4; neoxanthin, 9.9 (Mikulic- Petkovsek
et al., 2016); rowan berry: β- carotene, 75.4; 13; α- carotene, 6.9; lutein, 10.0; lycopene,
5.4, and zeaxanthin, 2.3 (Šavikin et al., 2017); and β- carotene, 93; lutein, 7 (Hallmann
et al., 2011); dog rose: β- carotene, 20.8, lycopene, 27.8, cryptoxanthin, 5.5, rubixanthin,
23.6, lutein + zeaxanthin, 11.3 (Hodisan et al., 1997). However, according to other
studies, β- carotene was the main carotenoids in dog rose and consisted of 98.2%
(Ghazghazi et al., 2010) of the total carotenoid content. Thus, β- carotene is the main
carotenoid in rowan berry, cloudberry, and cranberry (Table 5.2), while lutein is the
predominant carotenoid in wild small berries, such as strawberry, raspberry, blueberry,
lingonberry, and bird cherry.
Wild berries contain tocopherols that vary in composition and amount. There is
not much information according to the tocopherol content in berries. It was reported
that the presence of the total tocopherol in the amount of 1.02 mg/ 100 g FW in bird
cherry (Prunus padus) (α- tocopherol, 0.65, γ- tocopherol, 0.13, θ- tocopherol, 0.25);
0.31 mg/ 100 g FW (α- tocopherol) in blackthorn (P. spinosa) (Mikulic- Petkovsek
et al., 2016); 5 mg/ 100g (α- tocopherol) in cloudberry (Jaakkolac et al., 2011). Dog
rose grown in Turkey contained 3.42 mg/ 100 g FW of α- tocopherol (Kazaz et al.,
2009), and 4.38 mg/ 100 g FW (α- tocopherol, 4.14, β- tocopherol, 0.14, γ- tocopherol
0.1) harvested in Finland (Piironen et al., 1986). Wild rowan berries collected in
Serbia contained, mg/ 100 g DW, α- , δ- and γ- tocopherols 0.489, 0.058, and 0.171,
respectively (Šavikin et al., 2017), and rowan berries collected in the Latvian forest
Antioxidant Compounds in Wild Edible Berries 157
TABLE 5.2 Content of β- carotene, % of total carotenoids in some wild berries
β- CAROTENE, % OF
WILD BERRY
Bird cherry: 24.3 Poland Mikulic- Petkovsek et al., 2016
Blackthorn 25.4 Poland Mikulic- Petkovsek et al., 2016
Strawberry 22.3 Finland Heinonen et al., 1989
Strawberry 19.3 Bulgaria Marinova & Ribarova, 2007
Dog rose 20.8 Romania Hodisan et al., 1997
Dog rose 98.2 Tunisia Ghazghazi et al., 2010
Rowan berry 75.4 Serbia Šavikin et al., 2017
Rowan berry 93.0 Poland Hallmann et al., 2011
Blueberry 16.9 Bulgaria Marinova & Ribarova, 2007
Raspberry 6.7 Finland Heinonen et al., 1989
Raspberry 25.5 Bulgaria Marinova & Ribarova, 2007
Cloudberry 59.3 Finland Heinonen et al., 1989
Lingonberry 29.3 Finland Heinonen et al., 1989
Cranberry 40.0 Finland Heinonen et al., 1989
TOTAL CAROTENOIDS COUNTRY REFERENCE
contained, mg/ 100 g DW: α- tocopherol, 0.334 and γ- tocopherol, 0.025 (Klavins
et al., 2016). Finland wild berries contained, mg/ 100 g FW: cloudberry, 3.62 (α-
, β- , γ- , δ- tocopherols 2.95, 0.20, 0.45, and 0.02, respectively); lingonberry, 1.66
(α- and γ- tocopherols 1.53 and, 0.13, respectively); cranberry, 1.25 (α- , β- , γ- , and
δ- tocopherols 0.94, 0.02, 0.25, and 0.04, respectively); blueberry, 2.06 (α- and γ-
tocopherols 1.85 and 0.21, respectively), strawberry, 0.71 (α- and β- tocopherols 0.56
and 0.15, respectively), and raspberry, 1.03 (α- and β- tocopherols 0.88 and 0.15,
respectively) (Piironen et al., 1986).
The high content of phenolic compounds (TPC) is associated with high antioxidant activity. Among other berries, dog rose contains the highest amounts of TPC and
exhibits the highest antioxidant activity. High antioxidant activity was shown for elderberry, bird cherry, guelder rose, and chokeberries (Table 5.1).
Dark- colored fruits such as elmleaf blackberry, blueberry, chokeberry, elderberry,
bird cherry, and blackthorn contained the highest amounts of anthocyanins (Greek
anthos – ower and kyáneos – blue), while light- colored dog rose, cloudberry, guelder
rose, raspberry, and strawberry showed the lowest anthocyanin content (Table 5.1).
It was shown in many studies that wild berries harvested from natural habitats
contained secondary metabolites in higher amounts than those grown under cultivation. Thus, wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca) from natural habitats and from cultivation
contained, mg/ 100 g, avonoids, 55.9 and 47.2; anthocyanins 132 and 90; phenolic
acids 234.8 and 164.8, respectively (Najda et al., 2014). Similar results were shown for
blueberry Vaccinium myrtillus (Bunea et al., 2011). The content of avonoids, mg QE/
100 g, in wild blueberry varied from 110.36 to 112.50, meanwhile for cultivated blueberry it ranged between 84.3 and 103.18; the content of total anthocyanins, C3GE mg/
100 g, in wild grown berries ranged from 252.23 to 300.02, meanwhile for cultivated
ones it varied from 100.58– 163.40 (Table 5.3).
158 Wild Edible Plants
Similar results were shown in study of Mikulic- Petkovsek et al. (2012) for wild and
cultivated blackberry, raspberry, and strawberry (Table 5.3). The study of 13 cultivars and
27 wild clones of cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos) showed that despite great variation
in TAC content, wild species contained it more that cultivated ones. Thus, content of
TAC varied for cultivated cranberries from 12.9 to 99.0 C3GE mg/ 100 g (37.44±22.59),
while content of TAC in wild cranberries ranged from 29.6 to 228.0 (70.03±39.10), and
was in average by 87% higher than in cultivated ones (Česonienė et al., 2015).
The endemic Vaccinium cylindraceum, known by its common names, such as
Azores blueberry, is an unusual blueberry, which comes from the Azores. Comparative
study of the presence of some bioactive substances in V. cylindraceum berries gathered
on four different Azorean Islands and in commercial V. corymbosum from the USA and
V. myrtillus from Germany showed the advantages of wild berries over cultivated ones
(Lima et al., 2009) (Table 5.3). The content of TPC, mg GAE/ g DM, ranged from 21.7
TABLE 5.3 Comparison of the content of selected secondary metabolites in wild and
cultivated berries
HIGHER
IN WILD
BERRIES,
COMPOUNDS WILD CULTIVATED
% REFERENCES
Strawberry
Flavonoids, mg/ 100 g FW 55.9 47.2 18.4 Najda et al.,
Anthocyanins, mg/ 100 g FW 132.0 90.0 46.7
Phenolic acids, mg/ 100 g FW 234.8 164.8 42.5
Anthocyanins, mg/ 100 g FW 23.3 13.0 Vinogradov
Ascorbic acid, mg/ 100 g FW 10.4 37.6
TPC, mg GAE/ 100 g FW 434.7 86.3 403.7 Mikulic-
Blackberry
TPC, mg GAE/ 100 g FW 328.8 133.2 146.9
Raspberry
2014
et al.,
2020,
Petkovsek
et al.,
2012
TPC, mg GAE/ 100 g FW 223.2 107.6 107.4
Anthocyanins, mg/ 100 g FW 18.4 12.9 Vinogradov
Ascorbic acid, mg/ 100 g FW 4.2 18.4
et al.,
2020,
Blueberry
Flavonoids, mg QE/ 100 g FW 110.4 - 112.5 84.3 - 103.18 18.9 Bunea et al.,
2011
Total anthocyanins, C3GE mg/
252.2 - 300.0 100.6 - 163.4 51.5
100 g FW
Total polyphenols, GAE mg/
672.6 – 819.1 424.8 – 652.3 38.5
100 g FW
Antioxidant activity, FRAP, mM
2+
Fe
/ 100 g
6.49- 7.37 3.30 – 6.04 9.7
Antioxidant Compounds in Wild Edible Berries 159
TABLE 5.3 (Continued)
HIGHER
IN WILD
BERRIES,
COMPOUNDS WILD CULTIVATED
% REFERENCES
Antioxidant activity, ABTS, TE
4.31 – 5.67 2.43 – 3.80 60.2
mM/ 100 g
Antioxidant activity, DPPH, % 49.93 – 59.79 29.96 – 46.64 43.2
Cranberry
Total anthocyanins, C3GE mg/
100 g FW
29.6 – 228.0 12.9 – 99.0 87.0 Česonienė
et al.,
2015
Total anthocyanins, C3GE
mg/ 100 g FW
Total polyphenols, GAE mg/
194.6 76.6 154.0 Grace et al.,
2014
624.4 350.5 86.7
100 g FW
Chlorogenic acid, mg/ 100 g FW 18.3 12.2 50.0
Antioxidant activity, DPPH, mM
5.13 3.78 35.7
TE/ 100 g FW
Antioxidant activity, ABTS, mM
6.93 3.58 93.8
TE/ 100 g FW
Antioxidant activity, FRAP, mM
+ 2
Fe
/ 100 g FW
12.22 5.79 111.1
Bog Blueberry
Total anthocyanins, C3GE mg/ 100
g FW
Total polyphenols, GAE mg/ 100
220.0 189.8 Grace et al.,
2014
504.5 371.3
g FW
Antioxidant activity, DPPH, mM
4.65 3.98
TE/ 100 g FW
Antioxidant activity, ABTS, mM
5.14 4.01
TE/ 100 g FW
Antioxidant activity, FRAP, mM
+ 2
Fe
/ 100 g FW
Azores blueberry
TPC, mg GAE/ g DM 21.7 – 39.1 25.6 – 29.7 12.3 Lima et al.,
TFC, mg QE/ g DW 10.4 – 17.0 7.4 – 13.5 48.6
10.03 6.85
2009
Free radical scavenging activity, % 47.5 – 67.7 13.3 – 29.6 164.4
to 39.1 (31.05±7.27) for wild berries and from 25.6 to 29.7 (27.65±2.90) for cultivated
ones, while the content of total avonoids varied, mg QE/ g DW, from 10.4 to 17.0
(15.53±1.33) and from 7.4 to 13.5 (10.45±4.31) for wild and cultivated, respectively.
Antioxidant activity, measured as free radical scavenging activity, %, ranged from
47.5 to 67.7 (56.58±8.96) for wild berries and from 13.3 to 29.6 (21.40±11.46) for
160 Wild Edible Plants
TABLE 5.4 Content of phenolic compounds, organic acids, and sugars in some wild
berries
BERRIES
TPC, MG
GAE /
100
G FW
TOTAL ORGANIC
ACIDS, G/ 100 G
FW
TOTAL
SUGARS,
G/ 100 G
FW REFERENCES
Blueberry 452.2 1.05 4.32 Mikulic- Petkovsek
328.8 0.53 7.20
et al., 2012Wild
blackberry
Wild raspberry 223.2 1.33 5.10
Wild
434.7 1.39 5.46
strawberry
Dog rose 477.3 1.82 16.41
Rowanberry 540.7 3.19 8.29
Wild elderberry 514.9 1.17 5.54
Lingonberry 386.6 2.58 7.12
Lingonberry 201.3 3.20 6.90 Amundsen et al.,
2023
Cranberry 361.2 4.71 5.79 Česonienė et al.,
Blueberry 471.3 1.57 6.64 Zorenc et al., 2016
2009, 2015
cultivated ones. The predominant content of polyphenolic substances in wild berries
growing in North America compared to commercially grown species was convincingly
demonstrated in a study of Higbee et al. (2023). The authors suggested that this phenomena could be response for higher environmental stress.
The attractive feature of wild berries is the favored prole of the high content of
phenolic compounds and organic acids along with low content of sugars. Some examples
for wild growing berries are shown in Table 5.4.
It was shown for different berries that the greatest quantity of biological active
compounds are present in fruits at the beginning of their ripening (Amundsen et al.,
2023; Česonienė et al., 2015; Tosun et al., 2008; Vilkickyte & Raudone, 2021). Thus,
it was shown that the content of some phenolic compounds in lingonberry (Vaccinium
vitis- idaea L.) picked up in southern Norway as green on the early stage of ripening
and at stage of full ripening changed, mg/ 100 g FW: total avonols from 41.2 to
25.8; total cinnamic acid derivatives from 51.9 to 10.3; total avan- 3- ols from 206.0
to 74.3. However, the content of anthocyanins increased with ripening in lingonberry
from 0.4 to 80.9 mg/ 100 g FW (Amundsen et al., 2023). The increase in the amount of
anthocyanins, water- soluble pigments, which are phenolic compounds belonging to the
family of avonoids, caused the color of berries to change from white at the initial stage
of ripening to red, blue, and purple color for the fully ripened berries.
The same trend in the change of bioactive compound content was shown for nine
genotypes of wild mountainous blackberry fruits (Rubus caesius L.) harvested in
Samsun, Turkey (Tosun et al., 2008). From green stage to the ripe one, the content,
Antioxidant Compounds in Wild Edible Berries 161
mg/ 100 g DW, of sugars increased from 4.58±0.95 to 48.55±3.77; total phenolics
decreased from 1457.24 to 936.83; total anthocyanins increased from an undetectable level to 792.67 (Tosun et al., 2008). Vilkickyte and Raudone (2021) studied sea sonal changes in bioactive compounds in Vaccinium vitis- idaea L. fruits growing in
the forest in Lithuania. They found that berries collected at the initial stage of ripening
(1 July) and fully ripened (20 September) contained, mg/ 100 g DW, the sum of
anthocyanins, 0.59 and 313.56; the sum of proanthocyanidins, 1347.71 and 425.61; the
sum of avonols, 238.27 and 74.28; total identied phenolics, 2682.03 and 1401.58,
respectively. However, higher amounts of antioxidants, mg QE/ 100 g FW, were found
in unripe, 2340, and ripe, 2200, rose hips compared with half- ripe berries, 2130, meanwhile total antioxidant capacity assessed with the ABTS method constantly increased
with ripening from 29.8.6 to 36.9.4 mM TE/ 100 g FW. The constant increasing
of total phenolic content and tannins from the unripe stage to fully ripe were also
demonstrated for rose hips (Skrypnik et al., 2019). The total anthocyanin content in
cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos) collected at the beginning of ripening in the wetlands
of Lithuania varied from 69.8– 340.3 mg/ 100 g FW, but it was four times higher after
the berries had reached ripeness: 164.9– 835.2 mg/ 100 g FW (Šedbarė et al., 2023).
5.3 PHENOLIC PROFILES OF
WILD BERRIES
It is the presence of phenolic compounds that determines the valuable health properties of berries. Berries contain phenolic acids (hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic
acid derivatives), avonoids (anthocyanins, avanols, catechins, avonols, avones,
avanones, isoavonoids), stilbenes (resveratrol, pterostilbene, piceatannol), tannins
(proanthocyanidins, ellagitannins, gallotannins), and lignans (Caruso et al., et al., 2016;
Paredes- López et al., 2010). Some phenolic compounds present in wild berries are
shown in Table 5.5.
Among the anthocyanin pigments, cyanidin- 3- glucoside is the major anthocyanin
for a great number of berries, including elderberry, bird cherry, blackthorn, blackberry,
raspberry, and lingonberry. Chlorogenic acid (3- caffeoylquinic acid) was the major
phenolic acid for guelder rose. It was reported that chlorogenic acid was the main phenolic compound in wild guelder rose grown in Turkey with the content varied from 180
to 243 mg/ 100 g FW (Ozrenk et al., 2020). The fact that chlorogenic acid was the
dominant phenolic compound in guelder rose was reported in the study of Mazur et al.
(2021). The content of chlorogenic acid was also high in rowan berry, 213 mg/ 100 g
FW (Kylli et al., 2010), in chokeberry, 70.9 mg/ 100 g FW (Jakobek et al., 2012), and
in barberry fruit, 75.2 mg/ 100 g FW (Gundogdu, 2013). Caffeic acid was found in high
amounts in chokeberry, 261.2 mg/ 100 g FW (Zheng & Wang, 2003), and the content
of cyanidin 3- galactoside was high in blackberry, 266.9 mg/ 100 g FW (Veberic et al.,
2015) and chokeberry, 239.7 mg/ 100 g FW (Jakobek et al., 2012). High quantities of
kaempferol, myricetin, ellagic acid were detected in elmleaf blackberry. Myricetin was
also an abundant avonoid in bog bilberries and hawthorn (Table 5.5).
162 Wild Edible Plants
TABLE 5.5 Content of individual phenolic compounds in some wild berries, mg/ 100 g FW
KAEM-
BERRY C3G C3S C3GAL C3A C3X RUTIN QUERCETIN
PFEROL MYRICETIN
Bird cherry
(P. padus)
Blackthorn
(P. spinosa)
Strawberry
(F. vesca)
Dog rose
(R. canine)
Rowanberry
(S. aucuparia)
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 2.67 11.86 n.a n.a 11.41 3.54 10.48 6.16 56.66 n.a Donno et al.,
150.15 n.d 3.37 n.a n.a n.a 34.1 0.61 n.a n.a n.a 40.56 1.17 n.d 2.89 Mikulic-
128.65 n.d n.d n.a n.a n.a 26.37 n.d n.a n.a n.a 5.94 2.06 0.63 1.47
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 0.05 n.a n.a n.a n.a 0.04 1.30 1.08 0.21 n.a Celik et al.,
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.d n.a n.a n.a 55.6 588.2 Ganhao
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 3.4– 5.9 n.a n.d n.a 0.1– 0.2 n.d 0.1– 0.3 0– 0.02 n.d n.a Natić et al.,
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 20.7 n.d n.d n.a n.a n.a 37.9 1.4 Määttä-
0.95 n.d n.d 36.57 n.d n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Veberic et al.,
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.d n.a n.a 1178.9 4624.9 Ganhao
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 66.2 1.2 27.0 n.a n.d 39.4 7.3 n.a n.a Hallmann
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 213 n.a n.a n.a Kylli et al.,
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.d n.a n.a n.a 92.7 n.d Ganhao
Hawthorn
(C. monogyna)
Elmleaf blackberry
(R. ulmifolius)
48.5 n.d 10.9 n.d n.d 27.7 9.4 Parzhanova
n.d n.a n.a n.d n.a n.a 7.6 n.a n.a n.a n.a 14.80 n.a n.a 64.63 Mraihi et al.,
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.d n.a n.a n.a 1438 2307.7 Ganhao
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 6.6–
n.a n.a n.a n.a 0.32–
21.8
5.91–
170.46
18.82–
36.06
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 0– 21.30 11.46–
22.88
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 19.57–
444.86
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 100.9 n.a n.a n.a 27.5 n.d Ganhao
Antioxidant Compounds in Wild Edible Berries 163
ELLAGIC
ACID
GALLIC
ACID
CHLOROGENIC
ACID
CAFFEIC
ACID CATECHIN
PROANTHO-
CYANIDIN REFERENCES
2018
Petkovsek
et al.,
2016
2017
et al.,
2010
2019
Riihinen
et al.,
2004
2015
et al.,
2010
et al.,
2011
2010
et al.,
2010;
et al.,
2023
2015
et al.,
n.a 10.69–
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Caruso et al.,
n.a 0.01–
1.61
1.03
15.1–
143.8
n.a Yanar et al.,
54.25
3.57–
222.63
40.74–
200.06
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Caruso et al.,
2010
2021
2019
2016
et al.,
2010
(continued)
164 Wild Edible Plants
TABLE 5.5 (Continued)
KAEM-
BERRY C3G C3S C3GAL C3A C3X RUTIN QUERCETIN
Blackberry
194.53 n.d 26.69 2.47 25.46 n.a n.a n.a
(Rubus sp.)
Raspberry
24.56 n.d 4.26 n.d n.d n.a n.a n.a
(R. idaeus)
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 0.6 n.d
PFEROL
Blueberries
96.48 n.a 91.85 n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a
(V. myrtillus)
71.4 n.a 62.4 57.6 n.a n.a n.a n.a
19.45 n.a 54.25 16.19 n.a 11.33 0.28
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 2.95 n.d
Bog bilberries,
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 15.8 n.d
(V. uliginosum)
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 83.11 n.a
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 57.7– 68.1 n.d
Cranberry
4.63 n.a 15.54 20.73 n.a n.a n.a n.a
(V. oxycoccos)
2.56 n.a 3.81 6.29 n.a n.a n.a n.a
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 20.7 traces
Lingonberry
(V. vitis- idaea)
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 8.3– 12.1 n.d
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a
57.32 n.a 8.02 8.02 n.a n.a n.a n.a
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 7.4– 14.6 n.d
Antioxidant Compounds in Wild Edible Berries 165
MYRICETIN
ELLAGIC
ACID
GALLIC
ACID
CHLOROGENIC
ACID
CAFFEIC
ACID CATECHIN
PROANTHO-
CYANIDIN REFERENCES
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Veberic et al.,
2015
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Veberic et al.,
2015
n.d n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Häkkinen
et al.,
1999
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Bunea et al.,
2011
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Kähkönen
et al.,
2003
3.73 n.a n.a n.a 0.42 2.97 Zorenc et al.,
2016
1.4– 2.1 n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Häkkinen
et al.,
1999
2.6 n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Häkkinen
et al.,
1999
54.56 n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Lätti et al.,
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20.2– 34.2 n.a n.a n.a 0.3– 0.6 n.d n.a MäättäRiihinen
et al.,
2004
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Česonienė
et al.,
2009
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Narwojsz
et al.,
2019
6.3 n.a n.a n.a 6.5 2.4 n.a MäättäRiihinen
et al.,
2004
7.4– 14.2 n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Häkkinen
et al.,
1999
n.a n.a n.a 0.2– 122 n.a n.a n.a Šedbarė
et al.,
2023
n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Kähkönen
et al.,
2003
2.6 n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Häkkinen
et al.,
1999
(continued)
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