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TABLE 2.2 (Continued)
PLANT PLANT SOURCE HYDROCOLLOID
Prunus
spinosa
Berries Highly esterified
homogalacturonan and
rhamnogalacturonan
associated with arabinan,
galactan or arabinogalactan
side chain, sarabinogalactan
side chain
Rubus
idaeus
RCPI Berries Polysaccharide with sugar
(galactose and arabinose)
content of 79.94 ± 0.57%,
Lycium
LBP Berries Gels with LBP
barbarum
Opuntia spp. Mucilage
Cladodes
Two different water- soluble
fractions: pectin and
mucilage (resulting from the
polymerization
of without gelling properties
FUNCTIONAL
PROPERTIES RESEARCH OBJECT
FOOD
APPLICATION REFERENCE
Antioxidant (Capek &
Delort, 2023)
Shear- thinning, gelling
agent
RCPI solutions (Xu et al.,
2019)
(He et al.,
concentrations
2021)
of 0, 0.1, 0.5
and 1% w/ w
Composite food
gels as a basis
for various
types of food
products
Pectin gelling
properties,
emulsifying
and thickening
properties with Ca
2+
Jams, drinks,
tea, tinctures,
and dietary
supplements
(Rodrigues
et al., 2023)
66 Wild Edible Plants
Plantago
ovata
Tremella
fuciformis
Fruit Powerful antioxidant The extract (5%
v/ v) was added
directly or
encapsulated in
alginate beads
Mucilage from
seed husks
Cellulose, pectin and water-
soluble polysaccharides
Gelling agent
Antioxidant
Extract from fruit
peel
(85%) and nonpolysaccharides fractions
(15%)
Mucilage from
seed husks
Highly branched acidic
polysaccharides (highly
branched acidic
arabinoxylans)
Shear- thinning
Gelling agent
61.4% hydrogel
fraction and
8.7% water
soluble fraction
Mushroom body Stabiliser
Thickener
Extends the shelf life
Minced meat for
beef burgers
Mermelades,
beverages,
(Barba et al.,
2017)
jams,
edible oil
Іce cream (Hussain et al.,
2016; Souza
et al., 2020;
P. Zhou
et al., 2022)
Yoghurts, dairy
products,
noodles, ice
cream
(Hou et al.,
2022; Lin
et al., 2022;
Wang et al.,
2023; Yi
et al., 2024;
J. Zhang
et al., 2019)
Wild Edible Plants in the Development of Emulsion-Based Foods 67
68 Wild Edible Plants
concentrations it exhibits shear thinning. The PG- stabilized oil- in- water emulsions
showed a mono- modal size distribution with an average surface droplet size below 2
µm at a polysaccharide concentration of 4%. The PG- stabilized emulsions remain stable
with respect to phase separation for at least 30 days (Riana et al., 2022). PG showed an
irreversible loss of viscosity after shearing for a certain period of time, presumably as a
result of polymer chain breakage and molecular weight reduction. The PG droplets were
negatively charged with zeta potential values in the range of 30– 45 mV. The viscosity
of the Puka gum solution at shear rate of 1 s
- 1
decreases with decreasing concentration,
increasing temperature, ionic strength, and at acidic pH (Wee et al., 2019).
Mamaku gum has interesting rheological properties. This polysaccharide is
obtained from the stem pith of the fronds of the New Zealand Black tree fern. Mamaku
gum solutions exhibit a strong shear- thickening behavior, which is very unusual for
polysaccharide systems (Jaishankar et al., 2015). The shear- thickening property of
mamaku strongly depends on the presence of metal cations in the system, their concentration and valence. It is possible that shear- thickening occurs due to the formation of
intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonds and the formation of ionic bridges between
polysaccharide chains in the presence of cations (Wee et al., 2015).
The polysaccharides, Houhere and Harakeke, are extracted from mucilage.
Mucilage is secreted by the leaves of Hoheria populnea and Phormium tenax, respectively. Structural analysis of harakeke mucilage shows that it is a highly branched, high
molecular weight glucuronoarabinoxylan. The rheological properties of both harakeke
and houhere mucilage showed typical shear- thinning behavior consistent with intermolecular entanglement, but interestingly harakeke mucilage were largely unaffected by
changes in pH (Carnachan et al., 2019).
Wild plants from the Americas can also be a source of natural polysaccharides.
One of them is Mesquite gum (MG), or Prosopis gum, which was widely used by the
Indian cultures of central northwestern Mexico both for medical purposes and as a food
ingredient. MG is an exudate from Prosopis trees. Mesquite gum is a highly branched
complex heteropolyelectrolyte consisting of l- arabinose, β- dgalactose, and 4- O- methyld- glucuronic acid in a molar ratio of 4:2:1. In addition, MG can contain a small amount
of protein from 2.0% to 4.8%. In the study of sesame oil encapsulation, it was found
that Mesquite gum has strong emulsifying and foaming properties due to the presence
of a small amount of protein (2.7 ± 0.06%) attached to the polysaccharide molecule
(Fuentes- Ortega et al., 2017).
2.3.2.2 Polysaccharides isolated from flowers, leaves,
and stems
The source of polysaccharides can not only be mucilage, bark, roots, and gum, but also
owers and leaves. In general, the use of owers as part of a food product has a long
history in many cultures. In Ukraine, for example, it is desserts made from rose petals.
In Asia, hibiscus and camellia are actively used, in Europe, zucchini and violet owers
(Amrouche et al., 2022). In addition, owers have a decorative function, provide aroma
and avor, and contain antioxidants and vitamins. However, owers and leaves have
not been considered as sources of protein and polysaccharides. Thus, saponins with
hydrocarbon chains isolated from the owers of Verbascum nigrum L. (mullein) were
Wild Edible Plants in the Development of Emulsion-Based Foods 69
used to stabilise O/ W emulsions (Jarzębski et al., 2018). The prospects of using natural biosaponins to create functional macroemulsions based on mixtures of water and
rapeseed oil are outlined. The extraction of saponins from owers was carried out using
methanol, which was then distilled. The extract was used in two forms: obtained after
extraction and additionally centrifuged and ltered through a 0.2 µm lter. The extracts
were dried and dissolved in water to make emulsions. The average hydrodynamic diameter of the extract particles was 133 m. To assess the stability of the emulsions over
time, emulsication indices were calculated. It was shown that the emulsication indices
are little dependent on the concentration, and fall almost 5 times when using unltered
extract and about 2.5 times when using ltered extract during storage for 8 weeks.
Another example of a popular plant native to China, Japan, and Korea is a
owering bulb Amana edulis. Ji et al. (2019) focused their research on the prospects
of using polysaccharides isolated from this plant as emulsiers for food systems. Four
polysaccharides with different properties can be isolated from Amana edulis by sequencing. They were coded as hot buffer soluble solids (HBSS), chelating agent soluble
solids (CASS), dilute alkaline soluble solids (DASS), and concentrated alkaline soluble
solids (CASS) depending on the conditions of extraction. The study of 1% solutions
of these substances in the range of 0.1– 1000 s
– 1
shear rate allows them to be ranked
in order of decreasing apparent viscosity: it is interesting that CHSS > DASS > HBSS
> CASS. Interestingly, the molecular weight of CHSS (1.5 × 102 kDa) was relatively
less than that of CASS (2.6 × 103 kDa). This effect may be related to the composition
of polysaccharides. Both of them contain protein and uronic acid, but their content
in CHSS (3.1% protein, 5.5% uronic acid) is higher than in CASS (0.1% protein and
0.75% uronic acid). All four polysaccharides exhibit well- pronounced shear- thinning
properties. The values of emulsifying activity and emulsion stability in the concentration range of 5– 20 mg/ ml are given in Table 2.2.
An interesting example is the attempt to use the polysaccharide Shekartighal,
which is isolated from Echinops setifer (Nemati & Hesarinejad, 2024). Shekartighal
contains not only polysaccharides (76.9%), but also 9.2% protein, 4.9% fat, and
other components. It is to be noted that along with Shekartighal, the mayonnaise also
contained another hydrocolloid, xanthan. Sauces with Shekartighal content of 1, 2, and
3% were produced, and the one with 3% hydrocolloid had the best physicochemical
and sensory characteristics. It was shown that mayonnaise sauces with 3% Shekartighal
content were stable during storage for 60 days under a 4°C temperature. The average
particle size of the sauce was 0.63 microns, while that of the control sample was 1.35
microns. This indicates the ability of Shekartighal additives to counteract the coalescence of oil droplets. Interestingly, when stored for 60 days, the average droplet size
of the sauce with 3% Shekartighal increased to 0.59 microns, while that of the control
sample decreased to 1.23 microns. This study illustrates the potential of Shekartighal in
the production of sauces and other food products due to its high antioxidant and stabilizing properties.
Another example of a conjugate where a polysaccharide is covalently linked to
protein fragments is one encoded as ATPC- A, obtained by alkaline extraction from
the leaves of Apocynum venetum tea, which is also a wild plant, although cultivated
in some countries (Chen et al., 2022). Chromatographic analysis of the hydrolysate
obtained by alkaline extraction shows the presence of three fractions with molecular
70 Wild Edible Plants
weights of 55.0, 53.8, and 56.7 kDa. This conjugate exhibits a powerful emulsifying
stabilizing function for O/ W emulsions at concentrations of 2 and 3% and pH = 7– 8.
Using ATPC- A, it was possible to obtain emulsions with very small particles of 0.47
and 0.37 µm for 2 and 3% conjugate, respectively. After storage at 25°C for 10 days,
the particle size increased to 1.94 and 1.48 µm, respectively, indicating broad prospects
for the use of this compound in the technology of emulsion systems. It is worth noting
that despite the long- standing tradition of using Apocynum venetum L. leaves as tea, no
studies of the polysaccharide content in them have been conducted before (Rodrigues
et al., 2023).
The cactus can be a source of substances for use in the technology of emulsion
systems. One of the most extensively studied cactus is Opuntia spp. (Rodrigues et al.,
2023). This plant is widely used in traditional Mexican cuisine. Although Opuntia
is a wild plant, in recent decades it has been cultivated in Africa, Australia, Canada,
Argentina, and other countries. Cladodes, owers, seeds, and fruits are most commonly used in cooking. Cladodes are rich in biologically active substances and bers.
Cladodes are composed of water of 80– 95%, carbohydrates of 3– 7%, and ber of 1–
2%, with a low protein and fat content. In general, two types of water- soluble fractions
with different properties were isolated from Cladodes by aqueous extraction under
different conditions. One of them, mucilage, which is a product of polymerization of
monosaccharides, such as arabinose, galactose, rhamnose, xylose, and uronic acids,
does not show any gelling properties and is not interesting for the emulsion systems
industry. The other – pectin with a high calcium ion content – has good gelling, emulsifying, and thickening properties.
2.3.2.3 Polysaccharides isolated from roots and seeds
Dioscorea opposita can be a perspective source of polysaccharides. Several fractions
of polysaccharides with different molecular weights and different ratios of glucose
and protein units have been isolated from it by sequential processing. Four samples of
polysaccharides described by Ma et al. (2017) had an excellent composition and prop erties. The molecular weight of the samples was in the range of 5– 500 kDa, 5– 200 kDa,
10– 200 kDa, and 0.5– 20 kDa. It is interesting that the best emulsifying properties are
exhibited by samples with average molecular weights of 35.2 and 34.7 kDa, while the
worst ones are exhibited by samples with high and low molecular weights of 51.3 and
1.3 kDa. The authors suggest that the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides are
determined not only by the ratio of protein to glucose of the main polysaccharide chains.
They are also inuenced by other molecular inclusions: galactose, mannose, and other
chemical substances, such as catecholamine and leucoanthocyanidins. In the case of
the sample with the lowest molecular weight, the effect of such chain inclusions on the
emulsifying properties was pronouncedly negative.
Plantago ovate is widespread all over the world. The husk of plantain seeds (known
as psyllium) forms a mucilage when soaked in water. This mucilage contains a large
fraction of polysaccharides of 85% and non- polysaccharide of 15%. The polysaccharide fraction consists of highly branched acidic arabinoxylans (Hussain et al., 2016).
Moreover, psyllium contains 8.7% water- soluble components and 61.4% hydrogel.
In general, two types of polysaccharides were isolated from psyllium, which exhibit
Wild Edible Plants in the Development of Emulsion-Based Foods 71
different rheological properties. The polysaccharide separated by hot water extraction
is capable of forming gels, the strength of which increases with increasing concentration. Moreover, psyllium polysaccharides also exhibit emulsier properties and can act
as stabilizers of emulsion systems. Emulsions stabilized with psyllium polysaccharides
exhibit high stability, however, a decrease in the polysaccharide content leads to the
formation of much softer gels. This is probably due to their adsorption at the water- oil
interface, instead of forming a spatial grid structure. On the other hand, psyllium gels
recover quickly after the destruction of their structure due to the formation of hydrogen
bonds. The advantages of using psyllium are its ability to act as a prebiotic and normalize the gastrointestinal tract (P. Zhou et al., 2022).
Psyllium mucilage could be a promising additive for ice cream emulsions (Souza
et al., 2020). The addition of psyllium mucilage in different concentrations had a positive effect on the structure and sensory properties of the ice cream. Due to its neutral taste, it practically did not change the taste of ice cream familiar to consumers. In
addition, the use of psyllium mucilage has additional advantages over other mucilages
(such as Opuntia cus, chia, and okra) due to its nutritional composition.
2.3.2.4 Polysaccharides isolated from fruits and berries
Do not forget that fruits and berries are a powerful source of polysaccharides. Pectin can
be found not only in the peels of cultivated apples, citrus fruits, passion fruit, and chayote
(Rosales & Fabi, 2023), but also pumpkin and Abelmoschus esculentus (Wang et al.,
2023). The source of cellulose is the same apples (Rosales & Fabi, 2023). However,
most fruits have not been studied for their content of various polysaccharides. Thus, a
new polysaccharide PFP1 (average molecular weight of 2.02 × 105 g/ mol) was isolated
from the wild Chinese fruit Passiora foetida by hot water extraction (Song et al., 2019).
It contains eight sugars, but the highest content of galactose (32.5%) and mannose
(48.8%). Similarly, polysaccharides were isolated from wild Prunus spinosa L. berries
(Capek & Delort, 2023). The dominant component of this compound was highly esteried homogalacturonan and rhamnogalacturonan associated with arabinan, galactan
or arabinogalactan side chains, but no phenolics. Both of the above polysaccharides
have pronounced antioxidant properties, but no structure- forming studies have been
conducted.
Xu et al. (2019) succeeded in obtaining a natural polysaccharide (RCPI) with a
sugar content of 79.9% from raspberry fruit by its extraction with hot water. It was
shown that this polysaccharide is highly soluble in water and has a molecular weight of
411 kDa. The highest sugar content in RCPI is galactose and arabinose. The study of the
viscosity of polysaccharide solutions showed the presence of two regions: A shearing
region in the low shear rate region and a Newtonian plateau in the high shear rate region.
The authors attribute the appearance of the Newtonian plateau to the possibility of
‘unraveling’ of macromolecular chains at high shear rates. It was shown, that the moduli
G′ and G″ for RCPI increased with increasing angular frequency. At low frequencies,
G″ was greater than G. At high frequencies, the opposite pattern was observed. This
suggests that RCPI solutions exhibit liquid- like properties in the low- frequency region
and weak gel properties in the high- frequency region. Consequently, this polysaccharide
can be used as a gelling agent in food systems. Examples of polysaccharides extracted
72 Wild Edible Plants
from roots include pectin- and inulin- type polysaccharides were isolated from the roots
of wild Vernonia kotschyana (Inngjerdingen et al., 2012).
Again the Opuntia spp. should be mentioned, but its fruits considered. The chemical composition of Opuntia fruits strongly depends on the variety, region, and growing
conditions. Rodrigues et al. (2023) studied semi- nished beef burger patties with the
addition of prickly pear fruit extract. This extract was added separately or encapsulated
in alginate balls. The addition of prickly pear extract slowed inhibition of lipid oxidation
in the patties compared to the control samples. This indicates the prospect of using such
mixtures to extend the shelf- life of products.
However, it is not the pulp, but the peel of the fruit that is rich in polysaccharides,
the main ones being cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin (Barba et al., 2017; Stabnikova
et al., 2024a). Traditionally, fruits and peels are used in the production of jams, sauces,
marmalade, and various beverages. The polysaccharides extracted from the peels not
only have a gelling effect, but also a powerful antioxidant effect. This should have a
positive impact on the shelf- life of end- products.
2.3.2.5 Polysaccharides isolated from fungi
Mushrooms are another natural resource rich in polysaccharides. Fruiting bodies,
mycelium, and fermentation broths can be used as raw materials for the extraction of
polysaccharides. Edible polysaccharides from mushrooms have antitumor, antiviral, antiinammatory, immunomodulatory, hypoglycaemic, and other biological activities (Hou
et al., 2022; Stabnikova et al., 2024b; Wang et al., 2023; Q. Zhang et al., 2024). These
properties make fungal polysaccharides an important component of pharmaceuticals.
On the other hand, their safety, adhesion ability, non- toxicity and biocompatibility make
them very promising for the food industry. Moreover, the methods of isolation and purication of polysaccharides affect their biological functions, which expands the potential scope of their application (Q. Zhang et al., 2024). Although some fungi are actively
cultivated in some regions, the demand for raw materials from wild plants remains high.
One of the representatives of fungi that is widely used in the food industry is
Tremella fuciformis (Wang et al., 2023). It is an edible mushroom that is widely used in
Asia for food and medicines. One of the ways to isolate the polysaccharide TFP from
Tremella fuciformis fungi is extraction with hot deionized water followed by the separation of the polysaccharide.
The effect of TFP additives on the emulsifying activity and emulsifying stability
of yoghurts was optimal at concentrations of 0.8% TFP and 10% oil. An increase in pH
has a positive effect on these parameters, while an increase in NaCl concentration has a
negative effect. Moreover, the higher the salt concentration, the lower the emulsication
parameters. Emulsions with TFP additives showed better emulsifying, rheological properties and storage stability compared to similar systems with additives of gum Arabic,
pectin, and carboxymethyl cellulose. The difference was particularly pronounced during
cooling, freezing, and defrosting of the emulsions. Although all the products exhibited
pseudoplastic properties, the increase in viscosity with the addition of TFP was
associated with the formation of a more stable mesh structure. These conclusions follow
from the analysis of the rheological parameters of all emulsions based on the Hershley–
Barkley model (Hou et al., 2022). Comparison of the emulsifying activity of TFP in o/
Wild Edible Plants in the Development of Emulsion-Based Foods 73
w emulsions with lotus seed (LTS), purple sweet potato (PSPP), and gummiarabic (GA)
also favored TFP. The non- Newtonian shear- thinking behavior was similar for all four
samples at an additive concentration of 4%. However, the emulsions with TFP had the
smallest droplet size at pH = 10 and after heating to 100°C for 20 min; the highest zeta
potential, the lowest apparent viscosity and the highest cream index in the freeze- thaw
cycle compared to LTS, PSPP, and GA additives. This all points to the high potential of
TFP as an emulsier and thickener in emulsion food technology (J. Zhang et al., 2019).
Lin et al. (2022) studied the effect of TFP on the taste and stability of yoghurt
during its long- term storage (1.7, 14, and 21 days) under cooling conditions. The
positive effect of the 0.1% TFP additive on the moisture holding capacity and rheological properties of the yoghurt microstructure was shown. The microstructure of
the yoghurt with additives was more compact compared to the control samples. This
may be due to the lling of the porous protein structure with TFP fragments. The
positive effect on the structure of the product is indicated by the curves of changes
in rheological parameters (G′, G″, tan δ) and the results of the thixotropic 3ITT test.
It was shown that the addition of polysaccharide reduced the probability of structure
destruction as a result of external mechanical stresses on the product. In addition, the
hardness and stickiness of the yoghurt improved compared to the product without
TFP additives. Importantly, the addition of fungal polysaccharide did not affect the
ve main avors of the product. The positive effect of TFP additives on the structure of low- fat yoghurt may be related to the interaction of negatively charged polysaccharide functional groups with positively charged macromolecular fragments of
casein. This, together with the moisture- retaining ability of TFP, prevented the yoghurt from separating into grain and whey. All these factors point to the high potential
of TFP additives in dairy products and the prospects for replacing fat with TFP in
low- fat products.
However, TFP is promising not only in emulsion technology, but also in bakery
technology. For example, the addition of 4% of ultrane and ne TFP powders to
wheat dough for the production of steam buns signicantly improved their physicochemical and sensory properties. Ultra- ne grinding increases the specic surface area
of TFP powders, which directly affects their oil and moisture retention capacity (Yi
et al., 2024).
Fan et al. (2023) describes the effect of TFP additives to tteok (glutinous rice cake)
on short- term starch retrogradation, changes in the avor prole during storage, and a
decrease in the signs of staling. The best results were obtained for a TFP concentration of 4%. The possible mechanism of slowing down starch retrogradation and loss of
avor could be associated with a delay in lipid oxidation and decomposition, slowing
down the formation of aldehydes and other volatile compounds, and preservation of
antioxidants- polyphenols under the inuence of TFP. This opens up broad prospects
for the use of this fungal polysaccharide in the manufacture and development of bakery
products.
Liang et al. (2024) propose to use Pickering’s composite emulsion based on myce lial protein of Auricularia auriculata and xanthan gum. This emulsion can be the basis
for the creation of a semi- solid structure replacing hydrogenated fat.
From the above, it can be generalized that the vast majority of known
polysaccharides from wild plants exhibit emulsifying, structure- forming properties,
74 Wild Edible Plants
and typical shear- thinning behavior. The viscosity of their solutions and emulsifying
ability depend on the concentration of the polysaccharide, its composition, molecular
weight, ionic strength, and pH of the solution, and the presence of metal cations. The
presence of other fragments in the polysaccharide chain, such as amino acids, protein parts and others, can both enhance and reduce the emulsifying ability of such
substances. Moreover, for many types of raw materials, it is possible to separate a
whole complex of polysaccharides from a single plant, which provides great opportunities for their combination and use to stabilize food systems, in particular oil- in- water
emulsions.
The polysaccharides described above are just a few of the many natural
emulsiers isolated from wild plants that can be used to stabilize food emulsions.
They are usually natural rather than articial, their production is quite environmentally friendly, cheap, and most of them are produced from plants known in a particular region. The combination of these factors makes such polysaccharides most
acceptable to consumers.
2.3.3 Oils
Although oil- in- water emulsions play a signicant role in the modern food industry,
lipid oxidation processes are a major problem, leading to product spoilage, bitterness
and unpleasant odors. On the one hand, all vegetable oils contain unsaturated and
polyunsaturated fatty acids and are highly susceptible to lipid oxidation. On the other
hand, an increase in the concentration of unsaturated fatty acids increases resistance
to oil- water oxidation. This phenomenon may be related to a certain micellar conformation of the fatty acid mixture in the aqueous solution of emulsions (Miyashita
et al., 1994).
The development of new vegetable oils’ technology can help to select oils with a
fatty acid composition that would be more resistant to oxidation processes than those oils
that are currently widely used in the creation of food emulsion systems. One example is
the production of oil from wild pear seeds Pyrus glabra (Hashemi et al., 2018). In terms
of its fatty acid prole, wild pear seed oil contains 57% polyunsaturated fat, mainly
linoleic acid. This amount exceeds that of other edible vegetable oils such as sunower
of 60– 72%, cottonseed of about 50.0%, soybean of 49.7%, corn of 48– 50%, sesame of
36– 45%, and olive oil of 5– 21% (Y. Zhou et al., 2020).
Opuntia seeds can be used in the food industry as a potential source of fatty
acids: linoleic, palmitic, and stearic acids (Rodrigues et al., 2023). Thus, the authors
(Barba et al., 2017) point out that lipid content in lyophilized seeds and pulp from
Opuntia cus indica was close to 99 and 9 g/ kg by dry weight, respectively. According
to Ramadan & Mörsel (2003), agro- waste products from the prickly pear industry (peel
and seeds), can be perspective sources of edible oil. The use of recovered lipids in the
production of soaps, cosmetics, and glycolipid concentrates is also possible.
The oil obtained from Arabidopsis seeds is also interesting for food producers (Li
et al., 2006). Arabidopsis – is a small owering plant widespread in Europe, Asia, and
northwest Africa. The oil content in its seeds is quite high (up to 27%), but the seeds
themselves are very small, which makes their industrial use very difcult. Another
Wild Edible Plants in the Development of Emulsion-Based Foods 75
well- known member of the cabbage family, Brassica napus, looks much more promising in this regard. This plant is actively cultivated and used in the oil industry. The
oil content of rapeseed can reach 60%. In addition, low- growing trees such as Acer
tuncatum (42– 46%) and woody oil tree species such as leaved yellow horn (50– 60%),
peony (27– 33%), and Idesia (21– 44%) can serve as non- traditional sources of vegetable oils.
Often, wild plants have a combination of high protein content and oil content, as in
the case of the above Diyan kwakwa (24.7%). Moreover, lauric acid (12:0) and myristic
acid accounted for 66.7 % of all fatty acids in the seeds of this plant. But the content of
linoleic acid was very low. However, for other plants from Nigeria, the total fat content
was only 0.27 for Muricin giginya, 0.94 for Tsamiya biri, and 0.25 for Yari with linoleic
acid content in the range of y 0.5– 3.4 mg/ g dry weight (Glew et al., 2005).
An interesting idea implemented by the authors of the study (Carvalho Barros
et al., 2020) is especially noteworthy. They replaced the fat in beef burgers with an
emulsion system based on fat extracted from the wild tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus L.).
An example of an unconventional use of wild plant oil.
However, the classication presented in this chapter is very arbitrary. In fact, there
are many plants that can be a source of proteins, fats, and polysaccharides at the same
time. This includes both the Opuntia spp. described above and the Quercus rotundifolia,
which is common throughout the Mediterranean. Acorn our is very valuable from a
nutritional point of view. For example, 100 g of acorn our contains total protein 4.28 g,
total fat 11.39 g, and carbohydrates 74.56 g (Martins et al., 2022). The main fatty acids
in acorn our are oleic (65% of the total fat content), linoleic (~15%), palmitic (~14%),
and stearic (~4%). The fat content of acorn our is quite high and amounts to 11.39%,
while that of rice (0.90%), wheat (1.81%), maize (2.48%), sorghum (3.50%), buckwheat
(4.21), or oat (6.74). However, the protein content of 4.28% is lower than that of quinoa
(13.48%), buckwheat (12.19%), wheat (11.54%), and rice our (7.33%), but similar to
sorghum (4.68%), and higher than cassava (1.7%) (Hager et al., 2012). Therefore, when
creating new functional products based on wild- growing raw materials, it is always
worth taking a complex view of the problem. Sometimes one plant can cover several
basic components of the product we are developing.
2.4 CONCLUSION
The trend in recent decades is a growing interest in the properties of valuable ingredients
that they contain for the food industry. This is the driving force behind their cultivation
and development on a global scale. However, there are still many plants that are grown
locally, but not on such a scale that they are not considered wild. Examples of such
plants are given in this section. It is worth emphasizing that, despite the volume of scientic publications in this area, most researchers still focus on the raw food emulsion
stage made using wild plant components, rather than on the nished plant- based foods.
However, developing the technology to create such basic emulsions and studying their
properties is key to their implementation in end- products.
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