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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5182_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана
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newgenrtpdf
TABLE 4.1 (Continued)
SOURCE, REFERENCE
COMPOUND
BULGARIA,
(MOLLOVA
ET AL.,
2023)
CHINA,
(YANG
ET AL.,
2020)
EGYPT,
(IBRAHIM
ET AL.,
2017)
GERMANY,
(SUSCHKE
ET AL.,
2007)
INDIA,
(JOSHI
ET AL.,
2021)
MOROCCO,
(ZENASNI
ET AL.,
2008)
KOREA,
(KIM
ET AL.,
2006)
PAKISTAN,
(GILANI
ET AL.,
2009)
SERBIA,
(VUKOVIC
ET AL.,
2016)
TURKEY,
(ADIGUZEL
ET AL.,
2009)
Nerol + - + - - - - - - (E)- Verbenol + - - - - - - - - -
Myrtenol + - - - - - - - - Phytol - + - - - - - - + -
Sesquiterpenic Alcohols:
Spathulenol - - - - - - - - + +
Borneol - - - - - + - - - Farnesol - - - - - + - - - -
α- Cadinol - - - - - - - - + τ- Muurolol - - - - - - - - + α- Terpineol + - + - - + - - + +
δ- Terpineol - - - - - - + - - -
Caran- 3β- ol - - - - - - - + - Germacrene- D- 4- ol - - + - - - - - - Santalol - - - - - - - + - Iso- Spathulenol - - - - - - - - + epi- Longipinanol - - - - + - - - - -
116 Wild Edible Plants
Sesquiterpenic Epoxides:
Caryophyllene oxide + - + + + - - + + +
Humulene oxide - - - + - - - - - -
Aliphatic Aldehydes:
Hexanal - - - - - - - - + Nonanal - - - - - - - - + 2- Hexenal - - - - - - + - + 2- (E)- Nonen- 1- al + - - - - - - - - -
Pentadecanal - - - - - - - - + -
Aliphatic Alcohols:
2- Octanol + - - - - - - - + -
2- Pentadecanol - - - - - - - - + 1- Octen- 3- ol - - - - - - + - + (Z)- 3- Nonen- 1- ol + - - - - - - - - -
Undeca- 5,7- dien- 1- ol - - - - - - + - - 4- Ethyl- phenol - + - - - - - - - 2- Methoxy- 4- methyl- phenol - - - - - - - - + -
Phenolic Compounds:
Carvacrol + - - - - - - - + +
Thymol - + - - - + - - + +
Eugenol - - - - - - - - + Methyleugenol - - - - - + - - - Methylisoeugenol - - - - - + - - - 4- Methoxyacetophenone - + - - - - - - - 3- Carvomenthenone - - - - - - - - + -
(continued)
The Catnip Plant for Beverage Production 117
newgenrtpdf
TABLE 4.1 (Continued)
SOURCE, REFERENCE
COMPOUND
BULGARIA,
(MOLLOVA
ET AL.,
2023)
CHINA,
(YANG
ET AL.,
2020)
EGYPT,
(IBRAHIM
ET AL.,
2017)
GERMANY,
(SUSCHKE
ET AL.,
2007)
INDIA,
(JOSHI
ET AL.,
2021)
MOROCCO,
(ZENASNI
ET AL.,
2008)
KOREA,
(KIM
ET AL.,
2006)
PAKISTAN,
(GILANI
ET AL.,
2009)
SERBIA,
(VUKOVIC
ET AL.,
2016)
TURKEY,
(ADIGUZEL
ET AL.,
2009)
Benzene acetaldehyde - - - - - - - - + Benzenepropanoic acid - - - - - - + - - Benzaldehyde - - - - - - - - + -
Heterocyclic Compounds:
Naphthalene - - - - - - + - - Bicyclo[3.1.0]hexane 2
- - - - + - - - - undecanoic acid, methyl
ester
Aromatic Hydrocarbons:
Toluene - - - - - - - - + m- Xylene - - - - - - - - + p- Xylene - - - - - - - - + Styrene - - - - - - + - - p- Vinylguaiacol - - - - - - - - + (Z)- rose oxide + - - - - - - - - (E)- rose oxide + - - - - - - - - -
118 Wild Edible Plants
Divergent Compounds:
Tricosane - - - - - - - - + Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone - - - - - - - - + Methyl salicylate - - - - - - - - + Thymol methyl ether - - - - + - - - - 3- Octanon + - - - - - + - - -
3- Hexanone - - - - - - - - + 2- Pentylfuran - - - - - - - - + 1- Octen- 3- one - - - - - - - - + Farnesyl acetone - - - - - - - - + 1,3,6- Octatriene - - - - - - + - - -
Fatty Acids and their Methyl Esters:
Methyl hexadecanoate - - - - - - - - + Linoleic acid - - - - - - - - + Linolenic acid - - - - - - - - + Linoleic acid methyl ester - - - - - - - - + Linolenic acid methyl ester - - - - - - - - + -
The Catnip Plant for Beverage Production 119
120 Wild Edible Plants
were assessed for their total phenolic compound content in (Dienaitė et al., 2018). The
highest total phenol content in aqueous extracts was found in N. cataria (241.2±2.98
g GAE/ kg DW), followed by N. racemosa > N. sibirica > N. nuda > N. melissifolia
> N. grandiora (in decreasing order of phenol content). The total content of phenolic
compounds in N. italica L. subsp. cadmea collected in Turkey was 79.11 mg GAE/ g
DW, and the total avonoid content is 60.89 mg QE/ g (Kaska et al., 2019). These data
are consistent with the results described by Acquaviva et al. (2023), who noted that
the total content of phenolic compounds in water- ethanol extracts of N. italica was
44.07 mg GAE/ g, while the aqueous extract exhibited a higher total phenol content of
59.13±0.23 mg GAE/ g.
Phenolic acids constitute the largest fraction of phenolic compounds in Nepeta
plants. According to Hadi et al. (2017), phenolic acids predominated over avonoids in
all 29 samples of four Iranian species, N. kotschyi, N. menthoides, N. crassifolia, and
N. cataria. Rosmarinic acid quantitatively dominated in N. cataria, N. menthoides, and
N. crassifolia. The highest concentration – 1400 g/ g DW of this phenolic acid – was
recorded in methanol extracts of N. menthoides. Conversely, in N. kotschyi chlorogenic
acid and unidentied phenolic acid predominated. Authors consider this observation as species- specic. Köksal et al. (2017) investigated the major content of phenolic compounds in Nepeta trachonitica. They found that rosmarinic acid was the most
abundant, followed by chlorogenic and quinic acids. In lesser amounts, trans- cinnamic
acid and p- coumaric acid were detected. Additionally, Nepeta trachonitica contained
benzoic and salicylic acids. However, Azizian et al. (2021) found that ferulic acid
and chlorogenic acid had the highest concentrations in N. racemosa, N. saccharata,
N. congesta, and N. cataria. Lower contents were observed for caffeic, gallic, and
coumaric acids. As shown by Dienaitė et al. (2018), among the 29 identied compounds
in six Nepeta species, chlorogenic, ferulic, and rosmarinic acids were the most prevalent
components. Proestos et al. (2006) reported that N. cataria had the highest concentration of caffeic acid, followed by ferulic acid. Gallic acid content was signicantly lower,
and p- coumaric acid was not detected. Duda et al. (2015) found only rosmarinic and
chicoric acids in N. cataria. Therefore, it is difcult to explain the differences in the
composition of phenolic acids solely by species- specic traits. Bulgarian researchers
conducted a study on the response of N. nuda to changes in various external factors
(Petrova et al., 2022). Wild plants from different locations in Bulgaria contained varying
amounts of phenolic compounds, and when cultivated in vitro, a signicant decrease in
phenols contents was observed. Cultivation of plants in vitro under different qualities
and intensities of light showed that changes in lighting conditions affected the content of biologically active compounds, such as esculetin, ferulic acid, rosmarinic acid,
cirsimaritin, naringenin, rutin, isocvertetin, epidexoylignan acid, and chlorogenic acid.
Thus, the productivity of N. nuda may be regulated for biotechnological purposes by
cultivation conditions.
The presence and content of individual avonoids, similar to phenolic acids, also
vary signicantly according to different researchers. According to the results of Proestos
et al., luteolin is the main avonoid in N. cataria, with no detection of quercetin and
rutin (Proestos et al., 2006). In the studies by Hadi et al. (2017), luteolin also had the
highest concentration in N. cataria, while rutin and quercetin were not detected in all
samples. In another study of N. cataria, quercetin was identied as the main compound,
with apigenin detected in high amounts (Duda et al., 2015). The authors note that the
The Catnip Plant for Beverage Production 121
timing and season of harvest inuence the quantity of phenolic compounds. Azizian
et al. (2021) identied the presence of rutin, quercetin, and kaempferol in N. cataria.
Investigating the major content of phenolic compounds in Nepeta trachonitica, Köksal
et al. (2017) found vanillin, kaempferol, and apigenin.
The above ndings conrm that the chemical composition and content of individual substances in plants of the Nepeta genus vary indeed widely not only depending
on species- specic characteristics and soil- climatic conditions but also on many other
factors.
4.2.3 Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, and
Pharmacological Properties
Plants of the Nepeta genus are rich in terpenes and their derivatives, as well as phenolic
compounds. These substances are known for their various pharmacological properties,
including antimicrobial, antioxidant, and phytotoxic effects. Different species of catnip
have historically been used as antimicrobial agents and antiseptics, and today various
scientic studies conrm their effectiveness against a wide range of microorganisms,
including bacteria, fungi, and certain viruses.
Antimicrobial properties. The antimicrobial activities of Nepeta species are attributed
to the presence of nepetalactones. Essential oils from N. cataria, N. atlantica, and
N. tuberosa were analyzed for their antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli,
Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella enteritidis in studies by Zenasni et al. (2008).
It was found that the biological potential of the Nepeta genus depends on its chemical
composition, and the concentration of nepetalactone determines the antibacterial efcacy
against the studied bacteria. Indian scientists investigated the antimicrobial activity of six
different species of Himalayan Nepeta. They found that species containing components
with an iridoid or lactone skeleton exhibited greater antagonistic activity against most
microbial strains compared to those containing common terpene components (Bisht
et al., 2010). Nadeem et al. (2022) studied the antibacterial activity of N. cataria extracts
obtained with different solvents. The highest percentage inhibition of all tested bacteria
at concentrations of 1000– 250 µg/ mL was shown by ethanol- based extracts, followed by
methanol extracts at doses of 1000 and 500 µg/ mL and water- based extracts at doses of
1000 and 500 µg/ mL. The highest effectiveness of the extract was demonstrated against
Bacillus subtilis. In their work, Adiguzel et al. (2009) noted the antimicrobial properties of N. cataria essential oil and methanol extracts, while studying their effectiveness
against Candida albicans yeast, 24 bacterial, and 15 fungal strains. Only ve bacterial
and seven fungal strains were sensitive to methanol extracts, while the essential oil
showed activity against yeast, 11 bacterial, and 12 fungal strains. The maximum inhibition zones and minimum inhibitory concentration for bacteria sensitive to the essential
oil ranged from 10 to 32 mm and from 15.62 to 250 µg/ mL, respectively.
It was found that the antibacterial activity of N. aristata, N. baytopii, N. italica,
N. nuda, N. stenantha, and N. trachonitica against three Gram- negative (Klebsiella
pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli) and three Gram- positive
(Bacillus cereus, Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria (Yenigün
et al., 2024). All six Nepeta species demonstrated effective antimicrobial activity
122 Wild Edible Plants
against all six bacteria used, namely, N. aristata (from 64 to 512 µg/ mL), N. baytopii
(from 128 to 1024 µg/ mL), N. italica (from 256 to 1024 µg/ mL), N. stenantha (from
64 to 512 µg/ mL), N. nuda (from 128 to 1024 µg/ mL), and N. trachonitica (from 64
to 1024 µg/ mL). As noted by Ashra et al. (2019), overall, N. cataria essential oils
demonstrated stronger antimicrobial activity against Gram- positive bacteria compared
to Gram- negative bacteria. In studies by Shari- Rad et al. (2024), the ethanol extract
of N. bodeana Bunge leaves exhibited antibacterial activity against both Gram- negative
(Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli) and Gram- positive (Staphylococcus
aureus and Bacillus cereus) bacteria.
Azizian et al. (2021) investigated the sensitivity of four fungal cultures, Botrytis
cinerea, Stemphylium botryosum, Cladosporium fulvum, and Pyricularia oryzae, to
the inuence of essential oils from different Nepeta species. They found that in the
case of S. botryosum, mycelial growth was reduced at 0.04– 0.08 % N. cataria essential oil and completely inhibited at concentrations equal to or higher than 0.06 %
of N. saccharata and N. racemosa essential oils. Lower concentrations of essential
oil exhibited fungistatic activity. For C. fulvum, mycelial growth was completely
inhibited at concentrations equal to or higher than 0.06%. The authors note that the
inhibitory strength of essential oil on mycelial growth decreases in the following
order: N. racemosa > N. saccharata > N. cataria. The mycelium of P. oryzae and
B. cinerea showed reduced growth at 0.02– 0.04 % and was completely inhibited at
concentrations equal to or higher than 0.06 %. The main component of all essential oils considered in this study was nepetalactone, which has demonstrated also
antifungal activity (Kumar et al., 2014).
Therefore, the essential oils of Nepeta species may have potential as food
preservatives to extend the shelf- life of food products (Salehi et al., 2018; Hashemi
et al., 2023). However, these possibilities require detailed research and investigation.
Antioxidant properties. The antioxidant activity of Nepeta species has been studied and
demonstrated by several authors (Dienaitė et al., 2018; Duda et al., 2015; Mihaylova
et al., 2013; Nadeem et al., 2022). The main antioxidants in aromatic plants are phenolic
acids (such as rosmarinic acid, chlorogenic acid) and avonoids (such as luteolin, quercetin). Some terpenes and terpenoids may also exhibit antioxidant properties. However,
it should be noted that non- phenolic terpenoid components of essential oils, such as
limonene, linalool, and citral, depending on their concentration, may have pro- oxidant
properties (Baschieri et al., 2017).
Similar to the case of phenolic compounds, comparison of results regarding antioxidant effects obtained by different researchers in different laboratories is quite challenging. There are several widely used methods for measuring antioxidant activity,
but even when using the same method, reaction conditions can vary signicantly
between different laboratories. Some methods may be less specic and detect not only
antioxidants but also other chemical compounds (Priss & Glowacki, 2024). However,
while the results of quantitative analysis of antioxidant activity should be critically
evaluated, comparative assessment of antioxidant activity for different Nepeta species
or different extracts of the same species is undoubtedly objective.
In the study conducted by Mollova et al. (2023), the antioxidant activity of the
essential oil of two Nepeta species was investigated using various assessment methods.
Specically, based on the mechanism of antioxidant reaction, they employed two single
The Catnip Plant for Beverage Production 123
electron transfer methods (ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and cupric ion
reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC)) and two methods that utilize both single electron transfer and hydrogen atom transfer. These methods were presented as a function
of the concentration of Trolox – Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC). The
reagents used were 2,2′- azino- bis (3- ethylbenzothiazoline- 6- sulfonic acid (ABTS) and
2,2- diphenyl- 1- picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). It was found that N. cataria exhibited higher
antioxidant activity compared to N. transcaucasica. Dienaitė et al. (2018) demonstrated
the antioxidant activity of water and methanol extracts of six different Nepeta species.
Water extracts had higher antioxidant activity values than methanol extracts. The highest
antioxidant activity was observed in the water extract of N. melissifolia followed by
slightly lower antioxidant activity in N. nuda and N. sibirica. The extract of N. racemosa
showed the lowest antioxidant activity.
In Aras et al. (2016), antioxidant activity of ethanol and water extracts of N. nuda
subsp. lydiae leaves was evaluated, using DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and CUPRAC methods.
It was found that both water and ethanol extracts exhibited high levels of antioxidant
activity in DPPH radical scavenging and CUPRAC analysis. However, both extracts
showed a low level of activity in ABTS and FRAP tests. Overall, these results indicate
the antioxidant activity of N. nuda subsp. lydiae leaves, suggesting that this plant could
be a promising source for the food industry after further analysis of its other biological
properties. Antioxidant activity is closely related to the content of phenolic compounds.
However, Azizian et al. (2021) note that the content of phenolic compounds has a
stronger correlation with antioxidant activity determined by the FRAP method than
the DPPH assay. On the other hand, it was established that the total content of phenolic
compounds, in contrast, correlates more closely with antioxidant activity determined by
the DPPH and ABTS methods (Dienaitė et al., 2018) (Table 4.2).
Pharmacological properties. The biological effects of Nepeta plants are not limited to
antimicrobial and antioxidant effects. Extensive research is underway to explore the
anti- inammatory, dermatoprotective, neuroprotective effects, antinociceptive, spasmolytic, antidiabetic, and hepatoprotective activities, as well as the antidepressant and
sedative effects, and the antiproliferative and anticancer properties discovered in catnip
(Aćimović et al., 2021; Formisano et al., 2011; Ibrahim et al., 2022; Sharma et al., 2019,
TABLE 4.2 Total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of Nepeta species aqueous
extracts
TOTAL PHENOLIC
CONTENT, MG
SPECIES
GAE/ G DW
N. cataria L. 241.2±2.98 206.1±2.73 453.5±1.78
N. racemosa L. 175.1±2.59 213.2±1.82 412.9±0.82
N. sibirica L. 189.0±2.35 226.6±3.16 323.8±2.05
N. melissifolia L. 157.8±1.61 180.3±1.99 332.9±1.07
N. nuda L. 233.1±2.71 338.9±0.39 445.0±1.71
N. grandiflora M. Bieb. 101.5±0.60 97.30±0.79 90.421.52
Source: Adopted from Dienaitė et al. (2018).
DPPH, M TROLOX
EQU IVALENT/ G
ABTS, M TROLOX
EQUIVALENT/ G
124 Wild Edible Plants
2021; Süntar et al., 2018). However, information about the composition of biologically
active compounds in catnip and their effects is constantly being supplemented. The
latest data on some of the main pharmacological effects of various Nepeta species are
presented in Table 4.3.
TABLE 4.3 Pharmacological properties of the genus Nepeta species
ACTIVITY SPECIES MODEL REFERENCE
Anti- Alzheimer N. baytopii Inhibition of butyrylcholinesterase
in vitro
N. italica Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase
and butyrylcholinesterase in vitro
(Zengin et al.,
2021)
(Acquaviva
et al.,
2023)
Antiinflammatory,
antinociceptive
N. cataria L. Inhibition of inflammation by
essential oil in vitro, with
(Joshi et al.,
2021)
diclofenac sodium as the control
N. italica Inhibitory effect of extracts on
COX- 2 gene expression in ex vivo
isolated mouse colon specimens
N. ruderalis Buch
(synonym
N. hindostana)
Carrageenan- induced rat paw
edema model
Іn vitro protein denaturation activity (Karakoti
(Acquaviva
et al.,
2023)
(Aleem et al.,
2020)
et al.,
2022)
N. graciliflora
Benth
Inhibition of inflammation by
essential oil in vitro, with
(Joshi et al.,
2021)
diclofenac sodium as the control
N. bodeana Analysis of human erythrocyte
membranes
(Sharifi- Rad
et al.,
2024)
Anticancer N. bodeana The human breast adenocarcinoma
MCF- 7 cell line and the human
hepatocellular carcinoma Hep- G2)
(Sharifi- Rad
et al.,
2024)
cell line
N. azurea R.Br.
ex Benth
The cancer cell lines: A2780, A549,
HCT116, HEK- 293, JIMT- T1, K562,
MIA- Paca2, MRC5, NCI- N87, PC3,
(Abdoul-
Latif et al.,
2022)
RT4, U2OS and U87- MG
Male fertility
enhancement
N. paulsenii The impacts of methanolic extract
on CCl4 induced testicular
(Samad et al.,
2020)
impairment in male albino rats
Antiviral N. nuda L. The strain F of Human
alphaherpesvirus type 1 (HHV- 1)
(Petrova
et al.,
2022)
The Catnip Plant for Beverage Production 125
TABLE 4.3 (Continued)
ACTIVITY SPECIES MODEL REFERENCE
Аntiproliferative N. nuda L. Human colon cancer cell lines, HT29
N. melissifolia
N. cataria L. Human ovarian cancer cell lines
N. argolica Human breast adenocarcinoma cell
N. stricta var.
and Caco- 2
SKOV3
lines MCF- 7 and MDA- MB- 231
(Dienaitė
et al.,
2018)
(Gu et al.,
2022
(Şafak et al.,
2022)
curvidens
N. leptentha
N. phyllochlamys
N. racemosa
N. cadmea
N. transcaucasica
N. crinata
N. italica
Cytotoxicity N. baytopii Human hepatocarcinoma HepG2
cells; murine bone marrow
(Zengin et al.,
2021)
stromal S17 cells; mouse
Pro- Apoptotic Nepeta italica
N. paulsenii Briq Human lung cancer cell lines A549 (Hanif et al.,
L. subsp.
melanoma B16 4A5 cells
Human osteosarcoma cell cultur
Saos- 2
2023a)
(Boztas et al.,
2022)
cadmea
(Boiss.) A. L.
Budantsev
Broncholytic N. ruderalis Buch
(synonym N.
hindostana
Anticoagulatory N. ruderalis Buch
(synonym N.
hindostana
Cardiotonic N. ruderalis Buch
(synonym N.
hindostana
Antispasmodic N. ruderalis Buch
(synonym N.
hindostana
Antidiabetic N. cataria L. Inhibition of α- amylase activity in
N. graciliflora
Benth
The extract was evaluated on the
rabbit tracheal preparations in
vitro
Test for antiplatelet activity of plant
extracts using arachidonic acid
and ADP as inducers
The extract was evaluated on the
isolated paired atrial preparation
of a rabbit in vitro
The extract was evaluated on the
jejunum tissue preparations of a
rabbit in vitro
vitro
Inhibition of α- amylase activity in
vitro
(Aleem et al.,
2020)
(Aleem et al.,
2020)
(Aleem et al.,
2020)
(Aleem et al.,
2020)
(Joshi et al.,
2021)
(Joshi et al.,
2021)
(continued)
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