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6 Wild Edible Plants
Moringa leaf powder at a concentration of 1% was proposed to be used for fortication of ice cream (Handayani et al., 2022). There was no difference in consumer
acceptances of color, aroma, texture of fortied ice cream with concentration of Moringa
powder ranging from 0.5 to 2%, however results of the sensory evaluation of the taste
decreased with increased powder dosage. Therefore, an acceptable concentration of
Moringa powder was determined as 1%.
Lycium barbarum (wolfberry, Goji berry, Goji, Ningxia goji), tiny red fruits, is
known as a traditional medicinal herb having been used in China and other Asian countries for health benets and as food for more than 2000 years (Chen et al., 2014). The
various parts of Lycium plants (Figure 1.1C), namely berries, leaves, roots, and barks,
are used in folk Chinese medicine in the treatment of age- related diseases, such as atherosclerosis and diabetes from ancient times (Potterat, 2010). It was reported that Goji
berries also possess antitumor and immunoregulatory activities, helping in the treatment
of hyperlipidemia, hepatitis, thrombosis, male infertility, and improving vision, kidney,
and liver functions (Chen et al., 2014, 2018; Skenderidis et al., 2022).
It was shown in randomized, double- blind, placebo- controlled clinical trials that
daily consumption of Goji juice equivalent to 150 g of fresh berries for 14 days had
a positive effect on human health by improving general well- being, quality of sleep,
mental acuity, and reducing fatigue and stress (Amagase and Nance, 2008). It was shown
in a clinical study that polysaccharides of Lycium barbarum help to regulate the gut
microora in humans and can be considered as potential prebiotics (Gao et al., 2021).
At the beginning of the 21st century, Goji berries became popular in Europe and
North America as antiaging products with high antioxidant properties. Due to its nutritional qualities, it is now widely used as a plant supplement, especially as a health food,
and a lot of products are proposed, named Goji, on the global commercial market (Chen
et al., 2018; Jiang et al., 2021; Potterat, 2010). Goji contains many different bioactive
substances, among which polysaccharides comprise 5– 8% from dry matter (DM) and
are the most important compounds that largely determine the pharmacological value
of berries (Qian et al., 2017). They also contain, g/ 100 g of DM: dietary ber, 16;
carbohydrate, 46; protein, 13; fat, 1.5 (Bere, 2007); mg/100 g of DM: carotenoids,
30–50, mainly zeaxanthin; avonoids, up to 200; chlorogenic acid as the most abundant
phenolic acid, 11– 53; ascorbic acid (vitamin C), up to 42; α- linolenic acid (ω- 3), 70
(Bajramova and Spégel, 2022; Kulczyński and Gramza- Michałowska, 2016; Potterat,
2010; Zhang et al., 2016). Goji berry is rich in minerals, mg/ 100 g: potassium, 1300–
1700; sodium, 380– 710; phosphorus, 130– 230; magnesium, 78– 105; calcium, 33– 71;
iron, 4– 7; zinc, 1.0– 1.5 (Llorent- Martínez et al., 2013).
Goji berries are widely consumed as a food, for example, in Chinese soups, added
to meat and vegetable dishes, and used as herbal tea (Ma et al., 2019). Lycium fruit can
be consumed as dried whole berries and as berries incorporated in meat products, ours,
and beverages, such as juice, wine, and tincture. Goji leaves are used as a functional tea
and could be used for soup cooking in many Asian countries (Mocan et al., 2017).
Recently, Goji berries have received special attention as an ingredient in the preparation of various functional foods, including bakery, confectionery, meat and dairy
products, enhancing their nutritional and health- promoting values (Stabnikova and
Paredes- López, 2024; Vidović et al., 2022). The proposed functional products include
gluten- free bread (Ziemichód and Rózyło, 2018), ciabatta bread (Sicari et al., 2023),
Wild Edible Plants, Berries, Mushrooms, and Seaweeds 7
mufns and cookies (Bora et al., 2019), chocolate (Ferreira et al., 2017), burgers
(Antonini et al., 2020), sausages (Bulambaeva et al., 2014), yogurts (Taneva and Zlatev,
2020), and cheese (Shori et al., 2021). Replacement of 40% wheat our with goji puree
in mufns increased the content of insoluble dietary ber and soluble dietary ber
from 3.0 to 12.2 g/ 100 g and from 1.4 to 3.6 g/ 100 g, respectively (Bora et al., 2019)
(Table 1.1).
Lycium berry was proposed to be used for the replacement of sucrose in functional
(prebiotic) white chocolate, which was positively evaluated by consumers (Ferreira
et al., 2017). The addition of dry grounded Lycium barbarum berries, 2– 6%, to cow
milk in yogurt preparation improved its antioxidant activity (Taneva and Zlatev, 2020).
Beef burgers, prepared with goji puree (by- product after production of goji juice),
5%, and chia seeds, 2.5%, had increased antioxidant ability, content of ω- 3 polyunsatur-
ated fatty acids and decreased lipid peroxidation ability (Antonini et al., 2020). The nal
product had a ratio of ω- 6/ ω- 3 fatty acids 0.65 in comparison with 5.67 in the control
without additives, meanwhile the optimal ratio for healthy food is estimated to be 4:1
(Stabnikova and Paredes- López, 2024). According to the hedonistic tests, the product
was accepted by consumers as a functional burger. Goji puree contains, mg/ 100 g: insoluble dietary ber, 46.2; soluble dietary ber, 7.2; protein, 13.6; ash, 3.3; free phenolic
compounds, 131 mg/ 100 g.
1.3 PRODUCTION OF FUNCTIONAL FOODS
USING WILD EDIBLE MUSHROOMS
Wild mushrooms are classied under the kingdom Fungi, belonging to the phylum
Basidiomycota. Gathering wild mushrooms for food has been carried out since ancient
times. Currently, wild- growing mushrooms make up a certain part of the diet of the
poor in rural areas around the world, and at the same time are a favorite delicacy for
many gourmets. It was reported that more than about 2100 species of mushroom with
different degrees of edibility exist in nature, however the number accepted as food does
not exceed 25 (Barros et al., 2007; Pérez- Moreno et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2013). The
global market of wild edible mushrooms exceeded 1,230,000 tons in 2017 estimated
to be worth more than USD 5 billion (Pérez- Moreno et al., 2021). Species of wild
mushrooms are diverse in taxonomic, ecological, and physiological features, they grow
everywhere on a variety of at and forest soils, and the growth of different species in
specic regions of the planet is determined by local climatic conditions.
Nowadays, gathering wild mushrooms in some countries is turning into a new
source of income (De Frutos Madrazo et al., 2012; Román & Boa, 2006; Sileshi et al.,
2023). Among the global mushroom industry, wild mushrooms according to their
applications account for only 8%, while this number for cultivated and medicinal
mushrooms consists of 54 and 38%, respectively (Royse et al., 2017).
Meanwhile, edible wild mushrooms have an important nutritional value containing
high amounts of protein, bers, essential fatty acids, vitamins, and trace minerals while
8 Wild Edible Plants
having low content of lipids and low energetic value (Stabnikova et al., 2024a). It was
shown that wild mushrooms are even richer by protein and have lower fat content in
comparison with cultivated ones (Barros et al., 2008a). Bioactive compounds, such
as polyphenols, avonoids, phenolic acids, β- carotene, and lycopene are present in
mushrooms determining their antioxidant activity (Robaszkiewicz et al., 2010). The
body of a mushroom contains a lot of water, in the range of 86– 94 g/ 100 g, so the content of dry matter (DM) is very low. The characteristics of the two most popular types
of edible wild mushrooms are presented below.
Boletus edulis (porcini, penny bun, king mushroom), one of the most famous
edible mushrooms in many countries, is native to Europe, distributed worldwide in Asia,
including China and Japan, North America, and has been introduced to southern Africa
as well as to Australia and New Zealand (Figure 1.2A, B).
Because these mushrooms form ectomycorrhiza with the roots of trees, they could
not be cultivated yet and are collected from the forests. The relative rarity of these
mushrooms determines their high cost. Although presence of different compounds in
mushrooms depended on climatic and environment conditions, there is a certain similarity in their chemical composition. Content of moisture in Boletus edulis is around
20% (Teichmann et al., 2007). Fruiting bodies of porcini, gathered in Greece (Ouzouni
and Riganakos, 2007) and Poland (Heleno et al., 2015) contained, g/ 100 g dry weight
(DW): carbohydrates, 65.5 and 81.9; protein, 26.5 and 10.7; fat, 2.8 and 2.2; and ash,
5.3 and 2.2, respectively. Composition of sugars, g/ 100 g DW, was as follows: total
sugars, 14.4; fructose, 0.71; glucose, 1.24; mannitol, 3.1, and trehalose 9.3 (Heleno
et al., 2015). Content of organic acids in B. edulis gathered in Portugal was 3.73 g/ 100
g DW, the most abundant was malic acid, 3.23, followed by citric, 0.32; oxalic, 0.14;
fumaric, 0.03, and succinic, 0.02 g/ 100 g DW, acids (Ribero et al., 2008).
The composition of fatty acids in the Boletus edulis gathered in Israel were,
%: oleic (18:1, ω- 9), 29.4; linoleic (18:2, ω- 6), 51.7; palmitic (16:0), 9.0; stearic (18:0),
3.1, and linolenic acid (18:3, ω- 3), 1.2 (Hanuš et al., 2008). Composition of fatty acids
of bolete mushrooms harvested in Poland were presented by, %: oleic, 30.4, linoleic,
57.2, palmitic, 7.6, stearic, 1.9, meanwhile linolenic acid consisted only 0.1% (Heleno
et al., 2015).
Boletus edulis rich in vitamins, containing, mg per 100 g DW: B1 (thiamin), 0.46;
В2 (riboavin), 2.57; B3 (niacin), 19.54; B6 (pyridoxine), 7.0; L- ascorbic acid, 22.1;
vitamin C, 29.9; β- carotene, 1.06; lycopene, 0.69, and tocopherols, 4.9 (Jaworska et al.,
2015). A high amount of vitamin D2, 0.29 mg/ 100 g DW, has been detected in Sweden
porcini (Teichmann et al., 2007).
The content of major mineral elements in porcini was as follows, mg/ 100 g
DW: potassium, 2 384; calcium, 4.4; magnesium, 71.5; phosphorous, 637; sulfur, 742
(Nikkarinen & Mertanen, 2004). These amounts correspond basically to the conclusions
(Kalač, 2009) that the content of the main mineral elements in wild mushrooms are in
the ranges, mg/ 100 g DW: potassium 2000– 4000; calcium, 10– 50; magnesium, 80–
180; phosphorus, 500– 1000; sulphur, 100– 300. The accumulation of minor and trace
elements in mushrooms is species- and site- dependent (Alaimo et al., 2019). However,
Boletus edulis was found to accumulate high amounts of selenium, the element deciency of which in human nutrition can cause serious health problems, a maximum up to
7 mg/ 100 g DW, with an average meaning approximately 2 mg/ 100 g DW, mainly in its
Wild Edible Plants, Berries, Mushrooms, and Seaweeds 9
FIGURE 1.2 Popular wild edible mushrooms: A, Porcini (Boletus edulis), B, market sale of
porcini; C, Chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius); D, market sale of chanterelle.
organic forms, such as selenocysteine, selenomethionine, and Se- methylselenocysteine
(Falandysz, 2008). Because mushrooms can absorb heavy metals, especially mercury,
lead, arsenic, and cadmium, they can be collected only in uncontaminated places far
from industrial areas (Nowakowski et al., 2021).
Porcini possesses antioxidant activity due to the presence of phenolic compounds.
Total phenol content in porcini was reported as, mg/ 100 g DW, 446 (Jaworska et al.,
2015), 503 (Barros et al., 2008a), 1096 (Machado- Carvalho et al., 2023), and 1618
(Witkowska et al., 2011). The content of total avonoids was, mg/ 100 g DW, 32
(Jaworska et al., 2015) and 175 (Barros et al., 2008a). Among the studied wild mush room species, B. edulis had the highest contents of phenolics, namely, mg/ 100 g
DW: caffeic acid, 15.09; chlorogenic acid, 62.79; p- coumaric acid, 0.09; gallic acid,
21.3; gentisic acid, 6.09; p- hydroxybenzoic acid, 2.41; homogentisic acid, 229.1;
myricetin, 1.80; protocatechuic acid, 16.85 (Palacios et al., 2011). Antioxidant activity
per 100 g DW measured with the ABTS (2,2- azino- bis- 3- ethylbenzothiazoline- 6- sulfonic acid) method was 11.8 mmol TE; with the DPPH (1,1- diphenyl- 2- picrylhydrazyl)
method was 27.1 mmol TE, with the FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power) method
10 Wild Edible Plants
was 35.6 mmol Fe
of the mushroom fruit body contain different amounts of substances with antioxidant
activity, and caps possess a higher ability for free radical scavenging than stipes (Mena
2+
(Jaworska et al., 2015). It should be noted that different tissues
García et al., 2021).
Extracts from Boletus edulis demonstrated strong antimicrobial activity against
Staphylococcus aureus at very low minimum inhibitory concentration (Barros et al.,
2008a).
It is considered that a unique taste called umami (Japanese word meaning “essence
of deliciousness”), the fth taste combining sweet, sour, salty, and bitter, inherent
in mushrooms, is determined by monosodium glutamate- like amino acids and 5’nucleotides (Bernas, 2017; Zhang et al., 2013). Porcini has a delightful avor due to
the presence of such volatile components as carbonyl compounds and alcohols, meanwhile non- volatile components such as free amino acids and 5′- nucleotides have a great
importance in the creation of its mild taste (Tan et al., 2022).
The health- promoting abilities of porcini were shown in numerous vitro and a
few animal studies including antioxidative, antineoplastic, anti- inammatory, hepatoprotective, antibacterial, and antiviral effect properties (Tan et al., 2022). However, clinical trials are needed for further investigation and conrmation of the pharmacological
signicance of the porcini mushrooms. Because of its high nutritional and delicious
taste, wild edible mushroom Boletus edulis has wide usage in many dishes such as soups,
pastas, or risottos. From the point of view of increasing the nutritional value of a food
product, it should be considered that the mushroom cap contains almost twice as much
protein and has lower carbohydrate content than the stipe (Mena García et al., 2021).
Cantharellus cibarius (chanterelle) is another representative of wild edible
mushrooms with extreme popularity worldwide (Figure 1.2C, D). These yellow
ectomycorrhizal mushrooms grow in clusters from June to October in pine, birch, oak,
and hornbeam forests and have been used for food preparation in several European
countries, North and Central America, Asia, and Africa. Only in Europe, 188,000 tons
per year of chanterelle mushrooms are collected (Bulam et al., 2021). It is a commercially important mushroom, which is present in the world market in fresh, dried, frozen,
and pickled state.
The content of dry matter varied in chanterelle from 7.6% (Barros et al., 2008b)
to 17.4% (Ouzouni & Riganakos, 2007). The content of macronutrients varied, g/ 100
g DM: proteins from 17.4 up to 69.1; carbohydrates from 66.1 to 14.3; fat from 4.5 to
2.9 in mushrooms picked up in Portugal (Barros et al., 2008a) and Greece (Ouzouni &
Riganakos, 2007), respectively. Sugar composition of Cantharellus cibarius, g/ 100 g
DW, included mannitol, 8.3, and trehalose, 6.1 (Barros et al., 2008a). Composition of
fatty acids in C. cibarius were presented by saturated, 22.6; monounsaturated, 23.3,
and polyunsaturated, 54.1%, fatty acids. Linoleic acid was most abandoned in Portugal
chanterelle, 53.6%, followed with palmitic acid, 13.1%, eicosenoic acid, 11.5%, and
oleic acid, 10.8%, meanwhile α- linolenic acid consisted 0.08% of the total amount
(Barros et al., 2008a).
Chanterelle contained different vitamins, mg/ 100 g DW: ascorbic acid, 86; β-
carotene, 1.4; lycopene, 0.5; tocopherols, 0.02 (Barros et al., 2008a). The content of
vitamin D2 in C. cibarius, is high enough, 0.15 mg/ 100 g DW, so chanterelle could
be one of the richest natural sources of it (Teichmann et al., 2007). The content of ash
Wild Edible Plants, Berries, Mushrooms, and Seaweeds 11
varied, g/ 100 g DW, from 2.9 (Ouzouni & Riganakos, 2007) to 4.5 (Barros et al., 2008a).
Major mineral elements in chanterelle were presented, mg/ 100 g DW, by potassium, 4
602; calcium, 21.1; magnesium, 84.2; sodium, 14.2, and the content of microelements
was, mg/ 100 g DW: copper, 4.8; iron, 5.9; manganese, 2.4, and zinc, 11.3 (Gałgowska
& Pietrzak- Fiećko, 2020).
The content of total phenols was 88 mg/ 100 g DW and avonoids 67 mg/ 100 g
DW (Barros et al., 2008a). Phenolic compounds found in C. cibarius included, mg/
100 g DW: caffeic acid, 1.63; catechin, 0.58; ferulic acid, 1.04; gallic acid, 16.18;
gentisic acid, 5.4; p- hydroxybenzoic acid, 1.57; homogentisic acid, 31.68; myricetin,
2.33; protocatechuic acid, 4.28; pyrogallol, 9.11 (Palacios et al., 2011). Extracts
from C. cibarius possessed strong antimicrobial activity against Bacillus subtilis and
Staphylococcus aureus (Barros et al., 2008a). C. cibarius has a faint sweet avor of
dried fruits and an umami taste that is so valued in cooking due to the presence of
monosodium glutamate- like components and total avor 5′- nucleotides (Beluhan &
Ranogajec, 2011).
B. edulis and C. cibarius are rich in carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and taste
compounds, while low in fat and calories. They also contain, the same as a lot of
other wild edible mushrooms, valuable compounds such as polyphenols, terpenoids,
vitamins, including D2, sterols, β- glucans, and the unusual amino acid ergothioneine(2mercapto- L- histidine betaine), which have anti- inammatory, antitumor, antiallergic,
hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory and antioxidant effects, and antimicrobial abilities (Kalaras et al., 2017; Lallawmsanga et al., 2016; Patel and Goyal, 2012; RonceroRamos and Delgado- Andrade, 2017). The active polysaccharides (β- glucans) contained
in mushrooms strengthen the immune system and are considered as a health- promoting
factor. A schematic diagram depicting the health- promoting and medicinal properties of
mushroom bioactive ingredients is shown in Figure 1.3 (adapted from Das et al., 2021).
The presence of indigestible chitin, a major cell wall component in mushrooms,
may limit the availability of the nutrients contained in them (Borthakur and Joshi,
2019) and causes the fact that people with diseases of the gastrointestinal tract are not
recommended to consume mushrooms in signicant quantities. Thus, the average content of chitin, g/ 100 g DW, consisted of 8.4 for porcini mushroom (Boletus edulis) and
10.1 for chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius) (Bak et al., 2023). However, chitin could
play the role of absorbent for toxins and heavy metals, removing them from the human
body during digestion. Due to the presence in mushrooms, carbohydrates such as hemicellulose, chitin, α- and β- glucans, xylans, mannans, and galactans, they also serve as a
prebiotic (Jayachandran et al., 2017).
B. edulis and C. cibarius are widely used as a tasty and healthy supplement to
omelets, soups, risottos, pizza, meat, and sh dishes. The low- energy value, kcal/ 100
g DW, of B. edulis determined as 356 (Chorvatia, Beluhan & Ranogajec, 2011), 379
(Poland, Jaworska et al., 2015), 390 (Poland, Heleno et al., 2015) and of C. cibarius
equal to 376 (Portugal, Barros et al., 2008a), 356 (Chorvatia, Beluhan and & Ranogajec,
2011) allows these mushrooms to be used in low- calorie diets.
Low sodium content, 10– 40 mg/ 100 g, in mushrooms independent of their habitat
and taxonomic position (in comparison content of Na in whole milk is 40– 60 mg/
100 g, in meat products 1000– 2200 mg/ 100 g) (Vetter, 2003) made them an advisable
supplement to meals to decrease sodium intake (Guinard et al., 2016). As an addition to
12 Wild Edible Plants
FIGURE 1.3 A schematic diagram depicting the health- promoting and medicinal properties
of mushroom bioactive ingredients.
Source: Adapted from Das et al. (2021).
a dish, mushrooms allow sodium content to be diminished due to the unique mushroom
savory. Replacing 80% of the meat with ground champignons in the beef taco blend
allowed salt content to be reduced by 25% and its avor to be enhanced (Myrdal Miller
et al., 2014).
Thus, the addition of mushrooms to food products allows their nutritional value to be
increased, contributes to the formation of an exquisite taste, and enables the production
of food with a certain therapeutic positive effect (Ho et al., 2020). The use of edible wild
mushrooms for food preparation in catering establishments and food for individual consumption, such as Italian risotto with wild mushrooms, Polish bigos, fried mushrooms
with onions, soup with added mushrooms, popular in Ukraine, Lithuania, and Germany,
is well known (Luczaj et al., 2015; Procházka et al., 2023; Weichselbaum et al., 2009).
One of the main components of mushrooms that has antioxidant properties is
ergothioneine, a unique sulfur- containing amino acid, which acts as a free radical
scavenger, and cannot be synthesized by humans and is derived from food. Among
15 species of studied mushrooms, Boletus edulis showed the highest accumulation of ergothioneine, 181 mg/ 100 g DW, meanwhile the second highest producer of
ergothioneine, king oyster, contained just 54 mg/ 100 g DW (Halliwell et al., 2018).
However, the content of ergothioneine in C. cibarius was very low, 6 µg/ 100 g FW
(Nguyen et al., 2013) and its strong antioxidant capacity could be explained by the high
content of phenolics, especially avonoids, compounds.
There are studies aimed at the use of wild mushrooms in industrial functional food
production not only to increase their biological value and enhance their sensory properties but to improve technology and expand the shelf- life of the nal products. Due
to the high content of polyphenolic compounds with free radical scavenging activity,
Wild Edible Plants, Berries, Mushrooms, and Seaweeds 13
TABLE 1.2 Functional food products with wild mushrooms
WILD
MUSHROOMS
Cantharellus
cibarius
FOOD
PRODUCT
Frankfurter
sausages
CHANGES IN
RECIPE
Addition of the
decoction of the
dry powdered
mushrooms
EFFECT COMPARED TO
THE CONTROL REFERENCE
Increase antioxidant
content, improve odor,
taste, and overall quality
and extend shelf- life
Novakovic
et al.,
2019;
2020
under storage at 1– 4°C
Boletus edulis Frankfurter
sausages
Boletus edulis Beef
burger
Addition of the
decoction of the
dry powdered
mushrooms
Addition of
mushroom
extract
Increase antioxidant
content, improve odor,
taste, and overall quality
and extend shelf- life
under storage at 1– 4°C
Increase antioxidant
content, protect lipid
peroxidation, extend
Novakovic
et al.,
2020
Barros
et al.,
2011
shelf life under storage
Boletus edulis Pasta Replacement of
wheat flour
with mushroom
powder
Suillus luteus,
Coprinopsis
atramentaria
Termitomyces
heimii
Terfezia
claveryi
Cottage
cheese
Addition of
encapsulated
extract
Bakery Making cakes
or whipping
desserts
Biscuit Replacement of
wheat flour
with mushroom
at 4oC
Increase content of fiber,
antioxidant activity,
Lu et al.,
2018
reduce the glycaemic
response to the pasta
Increase the antioxidant
activity preserved over
time
Ribeiro
et al.,
2008
Increase nutritional value Due et al.,
2016
Increase nutritional value
and antioxidant activity
Gadallah &
Ashoush,
2016
powder
mushrooms can replace synthetic antioxidants currently used in food production,
making products more consistent with customers’ desire for food safety (Elmastas
et al., 2007). Because Cantharellus cibarius and Boletus edulis decoctions possessed
antioxidative and antimicrobial activity, it was proposed to use them instead of the commercial antioxidants in the preparation of frankfurters (Novakovic et al., 2019, 2020)
(Table 1.2).
Frankfurter sausages prepared with the decoction of the dry powdered mushrooms
had improved odor, taste, and overall quality and increased shelf- life under chilled
storage due to reducing lipid oxidation by several times compared with control.
Efciency of mushroom decoction application to prevent microorganism growth in
frankfurter sausages during storage at 1– 4 °C for 60 days was demonstrated. Similar
14 Wild Edible Plants
results were obtained when Boletus edulis extract was added to beef burgers (Barros
et al., 2011).
It is possible to use the extract in encapsulated instead of free form. Thus, encapsulated
extracts of wild edible Portugal mushrooms, Suillus luteus and Coprinopsis atramentaria,
incorporated in cottage cheese were more effective in comparison with the free form because
of the preservation of the antioxidant activity over time (Ribeiro et al., 2008).
It was shown that ergothioneine present in mushrooms has a positive effect
on the color stability of beef and sh (tuna) meat (Bao et al., 2010). So, supposedly, Boletus edulis could widely nd application as a replacement of synthetic
antioxidants in meat products. Because of the brous structure imitating the texture
of meat, edible mushrooms could serve as functional ingredients for the development of muscle foods, increasing its nutritional, bioactive, and therapeutic values as
well as giving food a unique taste and umami aroma (Das et al., 2021). Production
of different functional foods, including bakery, meat, and dairy products, based on
the incorporation of extracts or compounds derived from mushrooms are described
in the review by Reis et al. (2017).
There are some studies concerning the supplementation of bakery products with
mushroom powder (Table 1.2). Replacement of 15% of durum wheat semolina with the
powder of Boletus edulis in the formulation of pasta increased content, %: insoluble
dietary ber by 93; soluble dietary ber by 85; total dietary ber by 90; protein by 11;
fat by 10; meanwhile, changes in carbohydrate content and energy value were minor
(Lu et al., 2018).
Powder of desert trufe (Terfezia claveryi) fruiting bodies collected from Qassim,
Saudi Arabia, was added into biscuits to replace 10% of wheat our (Gadallah &
Ashoush, 2016). This addition allowed the content in biscuit to be increased, %: protein
by 21.5; crude ber by 23.0; lipids by 7.2; ash by 60.3, and the content of carbohydrates
to be decreased by 5.8%. The content of total phenolics increased from zero to 26.65
mg GAE/ g and scavenging activity from 2.08 to 30.43%. The appearance of biscuits
became darker with the increased amounts of added mushroom powder, but biscuits
with 10% replacement of wheat our had acceptable sensory characteristics.
Pasta with mushroom powder had signicantly higher content of phenolic
compounds and possessed higher antioxidant activity values. Digestion in vitro
demonstrated that incorporation of mushroom porcini powder to durum wheat semolina
reduces the glycemic response to the pasta.
Flour from wild edible mushroom Termitomyces heimii gathered in Côte d’Ivoire,
Sub- Saharan Africa, was proposed to be used in bakery (Due et al., 2016). Chemical
composition of T. heimii included, g/ 100 g DW: moisture, 11.6; proteins, 23.8;
carbohydrates, 47.7; crude ber, 6.0; fat, 3.6; ash, 7.4. Energy value was estimated
as 345.9 kcal/ 100 g DW. Functional properties of mushroom T. heimii our were as
follows: the bulk density, 0.74 g/ mL; wettability, 57.7 s; foaming capacity, 16.7%;
water absorption capacity, 315.2%, and oil absorption capacity, 125.3%. So, mushroom
T. heimii our has good nutritional and technological properties and could be used in
the production of cakes, whipping desserts or other products where oil absorption and
foaming are required.
The ours from wild edible mushrooms Ganoderma spp., Omphalotus olearius,
and Hebeloma mesophaeum harvested in Nigeria contained, %: moisture in the range
from 10.0 to 11.1; protein from 18.5 to 21.5; carbohydrates from 50.4 to 50.9; crude
Wild Edible Plants, Berries, Mushrooms, and Seaweeds 15
ber from 2.8 to 3.5; fat from 6.9 to 8.7, and ash 7.3– 8.3 (Aremu et al., 2009). The
value of functional properties were in the range: bulk density 0.23– 0.41 g/ mL; foaming
capacity 101.8– 131.5%; foaming stability 51.0– 54.0%, oil absorption capacity 450–
480%; water absorption capacity 260.0– 390.0%, oil emulsion capacity 57.3– 61.0 mL/ g,
and least gelation concentration 12.0– 14.0%. The authors suggested the application of
mushrooms would be useful in the preparation of various food products, where foaming,
emulsication, or gel formation is needed.
1.4 PRODUCTION OF FUNCTIONAL FOODS
WITH FRUITS OF WILD- GROWING SHRUBS
Many fruits of wild- growing shrubs have a unique taste and aroma, contain a high
amount of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, and their inclusion into the human
diet can improve overall well- being, help strengthen the immune system and resistance to infections. At present, when there is an ever- increasing consumer demand for
health food, manufacturing of functional foods using unconventional biological active
materials or additives is becoming more and more popular (Stabnikova et al., 2024b).
It is considered that polyphenol- rich foods could play a specic role in the prevention of oxidative stress- based pathologies. Epidemiological studies and associated
meta- analyses demonstrated that diets containing high amounts of plant polyphenols
help to predict cardiovascular diseases, cancer, type- 2 diabetes, osteoporosis, and
neurodegenerative diseases (Pandey & Rizvi, 2009). Incorporation of wild berries into
functional food can be useful for manufacturing of the products with increased nutritional values with new properties that contribute to improving public health. Blackthorn
(Prunus spinosa) and hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) are just a few of the wide variety
of underappreciated wild berries that can be used for dietary variety.
Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), known also as sloe, is a owering low deciduous
tree or a large spiny shrub in the Rosaceae family. It is native to Europe, western Asia,
and northwest Africa and naturalized in New Zealand and North America. Blackthorn
produces spherical purple fruits with a diameter up to 2 cm called “sloes” and are
drupes. These fruits are edible despite their sour and tart taste (Figure 1.4A).
FIGURE 1.4 Fruits of wild- growing shrubs: A, Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa); B, Hawthorn
(Crataegus); C, Bird feeding wild berries in winter.
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