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56 Wild Edible Plants
FIGURE 2.4 Classification of proteins by raw material origin.
Source: Adapted according to Healy & Tiwari (2023).
the time of harvest. Seaweeds harvested in summer contain more protein than
those harvested in winter. Seaweeds contain all the amino acids required for
human nutrition, especially rich in glycine, alanine, arginine, glutamic, proline, and aspartic acids (Thiviya et al., 2022).
• Isolates from mushrooms. Mushrooms are a source of protein with a balanced
amino acid composition, polysaccharides, dietary ber, phenolic compounds,
fats, chitin and cellulose. Mushroom proteins make up 19– 35% of dry weight
and have all the properties inherent in proteins: foaming, emulsifying, and stabilizing effects. Mushroom proteins have a high branched- chain amino acids
(BCAA) content, which are commonly found only in animal- based protein
sources (Ayimbila & Keawsompong, 2023).
• Unconventional plant proteins. This group includes proteins isolated from
green biomass, leaves, grass, stems, and forage legumes. Fresh green leaves
comprise 1.6%– 8.2% protein, depending on the type of species and cultivars.
However, if you process large quantities of them, the yield becomes signicant
(Tiwari & Healy, 2023). Wild plants should be considered in this group.
Edible plants usually contain globular proteins, but by changing the processing
conditions, pH, ionic strength, temperature, and physical impact on the system, it is
possible to achieve the desired form of proteins: globular, unfolded into bers or formed
into a spatial network (McClements & Grossmann, 2024). In addition, it is important
whether they are classied as albumin, globulin, prolamine, or glutelin. This classication has more to do with their water solubility (Figure 2.5).
Wild Edible Plants in the Development of Emulsion-Based Foods 57
FIGURE 2.5 Soluble- based classification of plant proteins.
Source: Adapted according to A. Zhang et al. (2022) and X. Zhang et al. (2023).
Therefore, not only physicochemical, but also a whole range of technological properties directly depend on the structure of the protein. The most well- known sources
of proteins are seeds, nuts, and beans, so let’s start our review with them. An example
of a wild plant whose seeds are rich in protein is wild almond (Amygdalus scoparia)
(Table 2.1).
The authors (Amirshaghaghi et al., 2017) managed to extract 56% of protein from
almond seeds. This protein contains 17 amino acids. Aspartic and glutamic acids are
the most abundant. Differential scanning calorimetry has shown that almond protein
denatures at 80°C. The isoelectric point of protein is 3.8, and its solubility in water in
the pH range of 3.5– 4.0 is minimal due to the aggregation of protein macromolecules
accompanied by system separation. Studies of the protein’s ability to emulsify at
concentrations of 0.1% and 1.0% in the pH range 2– 10 showed that the emulsifying
ability increased at pH<4 and also at pH>4.5. It is important to note that for all pH
values, the emulsifying activity index was higher for the 0.1% solution than for the
1.0% solution. It can be explained by the concentration factor: at a low concentration,
during the homogenization process, the protein chains unfold, exposing their hydrophobic fragments, which causes better adsorption on the surface of the oil droplet. On
the other hand, near the isoelectric point, the distance between molecules is minimal
due to the weakening of electrostatic repulsion, which creates optimal conditions for
protein adsorption on the surface of oil droplets and the formation of a stable emulsion
(Mwasaru et al., 2000).
newgenrtpdf
TABLE 2.1 The use of polysaccharides of some wild plants in the creation of food emulsions and emulsion- like foods
PLANT
PLANT
PAR T
PROTEIN
CONTENT, % DW FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES
FOOD
APPLICATION REFERENCE
Amygdalus scoparia Nuts 56 Emulsifier, foaming agent Suitable cost- effective
protein isolates
Cyperus esculentus L.Grassy part,
nut
Duckweed Aquatic plants 20- 35 (RuBisCo
Chenopodium
Seeds 14 Emulsifier, stabiliser, foaming
quinoa
Chenopodium
Seeds 13.12 Emulsifier, foaming agent,
album
Irvingia gabonensis Seeds 10,9
1.0- 1.4 (grassy
part)
protein)
Emulsifier Addition to local corn or
millet dishes
Emulsifier, foaming and
Emulsified sauces, desserts (Appenroth et al., 2017;
gelling agent
and gelling agent
Bakery, jellies and sauces (Mir et al., 2020)
gelling agent
Structure forming agent Commercial raw materials (Giami et al., 1994)
7.60
Diyan kwakwa Nuts 27.1 Structure forming agent Traditional dishes, sauces,
Muricin giginya Young shoots 15.4
and baking
Tsamiya biri Fruits 11.6
Yari Lichensmixture 5.3
Ximenia americana Leaves 7.87 Structure forming agent Sauces, snacks,
Amaranthus viridus Leaves 18.4
Corchorus tridens Leaves 19.0
confectionery, additives
to traditional food
Hibiscus sabdarifa Leaves 16.9
Maerua crassifolia leaves 15.5
Moringa oleifera Leaves 17.1
Leptadenia hastate Leaves 14.0
Amaranthus Seeds 14 Emulsifier, foaming and
gelling agent, antioxidant
Gluten- free food,
drinks, gels, artificial meat
58 Wild Edible Plants
(Amirshaghaghi et al., 2017;
Mwasaru et al., 2000)
(Alabi A. O. et al., 2024;
Pelegrín et al., 2022)
Di Stefano et al., 2018;
H. Zhou et al., 2024)
(Shi et al., 2019)
(Glew et al., 2005)
(Freiberger et al., 1998)
(X. Zhang et al., 2023)
Wild Edible Plants in the Development of Emulsion-Based Foods 59
A promising source of protein is the walnut residue (Juglans regia L.), which
contains more than 50% of it. However, the problem is that most of this protein is insoluble and is lost during cooking.
Therefore, it is reasonable to use the walnut protein isolate nanoparticles (WPINPs)
obtained by the US- pH- cycling method. The average particle size of WPINPs was
108 nm. The composition included 80.2% protein, 2.2% ash, 7.8% water and 0.9% fat.
Liu et al. (2023) studied the effect of WPINPs’ concentration (0.5– 2.5%) on the stability
of o/ w emulsions with an oil content of 20– 70%. The optimal ratio was 2.0% WPINPs to
60% oil. Such a pickling emulsion exhibited the highest stability and was characterized
by a particle size of 3.33 µm and an elastic structure. The formation of a mesh elastic
structure provided good thermal stability and high stability of the emulsions during
storage for 15 days.
Tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus L.), a herbaceous perennial known for its ‘bulbs’,
like ground almonds, can also be a source of protein, fat and ber. It is now actively
cultivated, but in some countries wild species are also used. The addition of tiger nut
bers to ‘ogi’, a specic emulsion porridge made from corn, sorghum, or millet that is
a traditional product in Nigeria, increases its protein content, extends its shelf- life and
increases its energy value (Alabi et al., 2024). The protein content in the herbaceous part
of this plant is 1.0– 1.4% (Pelegrín et al., 2022).
Many Asian and African cultures actively use amaranth extracts, derived mainly
from the seeds of Amaranthus spp., as a source of protein. The protein of amaranth
has been studied in depth. The total protein content is up to 14– 16%. Amaranth protein
consists mainly of albumin fraction (19– 23% of the total content) and globulin (~19%).
Glutelin and prolamin are quite small (Dai et al., 2022; Tovar- Pérez et al., 2019). It
should be noted that amaranth protein is quite balanced in its amino acid composition
compared to other cereals. It is relatively rich in essential amino acids such as lysine
and tryptophan, unlike cereal grains, which are low in lysine. This protein can be successfully used for the production of edible lms, beverages, baked goods, and vegetable
meat, but it is not the best option for emulsion system technology (X. Zhang et al.,
2023). The protein fraction of amaranth has worse emulsifying and foaming properties
than casein or soy protein (Tömösközi et al., 2008).
In addition to amaranth, quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa L.) can be a great source of
protein. Although quinoa is usually cultivated, it is also found in the wild. Quinoa has all
nine essential amino acids, making it a balanced source of protein. The protein content
of quinoa is about 14%. Regarding the amino acid prole, quinoa protein has a wellbalanced conguration with high levels of essential amino acids, lysine and histidine,
which makes it represents a valuable source to supplement cereals (Shi et al., 2019).
Quinoa protein has the typical processing properties of proteins: emulsifying ability
and stability, pH dependence of solubility, foaming and gelling properties. Moreover,
quinoa protein is characterized by a foaming capacity similar to that of soy protein
(Abugoch et al., 2008) and a gel- forming ability similar to that of amaranth protein
(Bejarano- Luján et al., 2010). In addition, it was shown that emulsions stabilized with
quinoa protein showed higher resistance to oxidation than those with amaranth protein
(Gürbüz et al., 2018).
A member of the Amaranthaceae family of the genus Chenopodium, in addition
to actively cultivated quinoa, is album (Chenopodium album L.). This is a wild and
60 Wild Edible Plants
fast- growing plant. Chenopodium album L. like quinoa and amaranth, can also be
classied as pseudo- cereal crops. Compared to classical cereals, album and quinoa
seeds have a better amino acid composition, biological index and nutritional index for
humans (Mir et al., 2021). Chenopodium album L. seeds contain about 13.1% protein
and have an excellent amino acid balance with a high content of lysine and methionine
(Mir et al., 2020). The quinoa protein isolates had the best rheological and structural
properties. The denaturation temperature is higher for album proteins.
An interesting source of protein can be the seeds of the wild mango Irvingia
gabonensis, which is widely used in Niger as a avoring and consistency regulator
for some dishes. According to Giami et al. (1994) the protein content in the seeds is
10.9%, and the fat content is from 54 to 67%, so it is more likely to be ranked as an
oilseed. Other researchers (Ekpe et al., 2007) indicate that mango seeds contain 66.6%
fat, which ts into the previous interval, but only 7.6% protein, which is less than the
previous values. The amino acid prole consists of 18 amino acids, with a predominant
content of proline and leucine. It is clear that due to the low protein content, Irvingia
gabonensis seeds are not an interesting object for protein- enriched products, but due to
their high fat content, they are a potential raw material for the production of vegetable
oil, which is also an essential component of food emulsion systems.
African cuisine has a centuries- long tradition of using plants for food. Many local
recipes are passed down from generation to generation and are based on the use of local
plant ingredients. Many African countries have a favorable climate for a wide range
of plant crops. Seasonal vegetables and fruits are available throughout the year, which
facilitates their constant use in the diet. Growing, and even more so, harvesting plants
requires signicantly fewer resources compared to poultry and livestock. Moreover, the
inclusion of wild fruits and vegetables in the diet can alleviate some of the problems
associated with vitamin and mineral deciencies in the population (Bvenura & Afolayan,
2015). This is critical in regions with limited economic opportunities, not only in Africa
but also in other parts of the world (Ding et al., 2021). However, there is still no single
general list of edible plants not only on the African continent, but even in individual
regions (Welcome & Van Wyk, 2019).
Examples include African wild plants diyan kwakwa (nut of the coconut palm,
Cocos nucifera L.), muricin giginya (young shoot of Borassus aethiopum), tsamiya biri
(fruit of the tree, Tamarindus indica L.), and yari (a mixture of lichens, mainly Rimelia
reticulate) that grows on ebony trees (Diospyros mespiliformis L.), whose nutritional
composition has been described (Glew et al., 2005) (Table 2.1).
It is interesting to note that the raw materials used for these studies were purchased
in local stores. The study of the amino acid composition of proteins showed that a high
protein content does not always correlate with its quality. For example, diyan kwakwa
contained 24.7% protein, but it contained only three of the eight categories of essential amino acids. In contrast, the amino acid composition of muricin giginya protein
(15.4%) was very close to the WHO recommended value, differing only in the content
of tryptophan. A study of another group of wild plants (Table 2.1), whose leaves are
used to make sauces, snacks, and other food products, showed that these raw materials
are quite rich in protein (Freiberger et al., 1998).
Moreover, the leaves of Moringa oleifera, Maerua crassifolia, and Leptadenia
hastata are characterized by the highest proportions of essential amino acids (94– 97%
Wild Edible Plants in the Development of Emulsion-Based Foods 61
of the WHO standard). However, the amino acid composition of the protein of other
plants was less balanced, with a pronounced deciency of methionine, which is generally typical for raw materials obtained from leaves.
Although it is not obvious to the average consumer, a high amount of protein
can be contained in the stems and leaves of plants. The article by H. Zhou et al.
(2024) describes the potential for replacing egg raw materials with Ribulose- 1,5bisphosphate carboxylase- oxygenase (RuBisCO) protein, which can be sourced from
both cultivated and wild leafy raw materials, in particular, duckweed. This protein
exists in four forms. Form I makes up 50% of leaf proteins and can be used as a
functional ingredient (Di Stefano et al., 2018). Notably, the amino acid composition of duckweed protein is very close to that recommended by the WHO: 4.8%
Lys, 2.7% Met + Cys and 7.7% Phe + Tyr (Appenroth et al., 2017). However, the
extraction process of plant proteins is very complex and may limit their use in food
products (Di Stefano et al., 2018). At concentrations of about 12.5% by weight,
this protein exhibits powerful emulsifying and gelling properties and can be used
in combination with vegetable dyes to mimic the structure of egg yolk. To study the
gelation processes, O/ W emulsions based on corn oil with droplet sizes of 0.2, 1
and 15 µm were prepared and then heated to the gelation temperature. The lightness
and hardness of the resulting gel depended on the particle size: it was higher, the
smaller the droplet size of the initial emulsion (H. Zhou et al., 2024). Thus, heating
before emulsication increases the strength and stability of the emulsion formed
with RuBisCo. Maximum foaming occurs in the region of the isoelectric point. An
increase in pH causes an increase in the emulsifying capacity of the protein (Di
Stefano et al., 2018).
If the nutrients are extracted from the green part of the plant (leaves, stems), it
is more efcient to use dried and ground plants rather than fresh ones. It is clear that
removing moisture serves as a way to concentrate all the nutrients. An example of such
a plant is the well- known nettle Urtica dioica. Its shoots contain 90% moisture and
rests are proteins (3.7%), fat (0.6%), ash (2.1%), dietary ber (6.4%), and total carbohydrate (7.1%). Dry our consists of crude protein (33.8%), crude ber (9.1%), crude
fat (3.6%), total ash (16.2%), and carbohydrates (37.4%). It is important that the energy
value of dry nettle our is low (307 kcal/ 100 g) compared to wheat and barley ours
(Adhikari et al., 2016).
The European continent is also rich in wild plants that can be a source of components
for emulsion systems. It is well known that both cultivated and wild legumes contain
high levels of ber, protein, and polysaccharides. The researchers (Elamine et al., 2022)
conducted a study of 23 species of Mediterranean legumes. In Table 2.2, only those
plants that are used for human consumption are listed. The composition of proteins in
legumes is very close to the WHO recommended values. These proteins have a high
nutritional value and can be a source of essential amino acids, which the human body
usually gets from meat products. However, most proteins derived from legumes are
lacking in sulphur- containing amino acids such as methionine and cysteine. Legume
seeds are characterized by the presence of a signicant content of free non- protein
amino acids, especially sanavanine, an analog of arginine (Elamine et al., 2022).
Thus, we can summarize that wild plants can be a valuable source of protein,
especially in regions where access to traditional sources of protein, such as meat or
62 Wild Edible Plants
cultivated crops, is limited (Bvenura & Afolayan, 2015). Wild plant proteins can have a
high nutritional value, just like animal proteins. However, the selection and combination
of raw materials to achieve an optimal amino acid composition is important (Martins
et al., 2022). Plants that contain protein are often rich in minerals and trace elements,
contain ber and vitamins, and have antioxidant properties. Often, the same plants can
be both a source of protein and polysaccharides. The combination of these factors can
be used successfully in the development and creation of new food emulsion products.
2.3.2 Polysaccharides
Water- soluble polysaccharides, especially non- starches, are becoming increasingly used in the food industry. The reason for this is their high structure- forming
ability, which allows them to form strong spatial structures that are mostly thermally
stable. Polysaccharides are an integral component of all food emulsions. Depending
on the expected result, they are used together or in a mixture. In emulsion systems,
polysaccharides act as thickening, gelling, or stabilizing agents (Dickinson, 2013). It
is well known that the properties of plant polysaccharides depend signicantly on their
botanical nature. Polysaccharides differ signicantly in the types of glycosidic bonds,
composition of monosaccharides, degree of polymerization, and presence of certain
functional groups (Ma et al., 2017). In addition, this is due to a signicant increase in
consumer interest in environmentally friendly products made with natural emulsiers
instead of synthetic ones. Therefore, attention is growing to the possibility of extracting
polysaccharides from unconventional raw materials, which are actually waste (Ramadan
& Mörsel, 2003). An example could be the leaves that remain after brewing and infusing
drinks on them (Chen et al., 2022).
Many of the polysaccharides discussed below contain not only sugar units, but
also proteins and other substances in their macromolecular chains. Such conjugates
can exhibit more powerful or, in contrast, worse emulsifying properties than individual proteins and polysaccharides, and therefore generate increased interest among
scientists. For this reason, the term ‘hydrocolloids’ is used and understood by scientists
and technologists. It unites a large group of polymers that consist mainly of polysaccharide chains, but may also contain cross- linked protein fragments (Pirsa & Hafezi,
2023). The presence of proteins, non- covalent bonds and other additional interactions
at certain concentrations causes a powerful synergistic effect, accompanied by the formation of strong gels. It is worth noting that small concentrations of hydrocolloids are
sufcient to obtain the required structure and texture of food products: less than 1%
(Gao et al., 2024).
The diversity of botanical species can provide a high variety of polysaccharides.
Moreover, the source of polysaccharides can be not only plants (plant seeds, fruit rinds,
tree secretion) but also fungi and algae (Figure 2.6).
There is no established classication of polysaccharides, they are generally
divided into low- molecular weight and gums (long- chain high- molecular weight
polysaccharides). Polysaccharide gums are promising ingredients for foods designed
for appetite control (Carnachan et al., 2019). Interestingly, the lion’s share of researchers
focuses on the isolation and purication of polysaccharides and the precise determination of their chemical composition. Most polysaccharides are considered to be sugar
Wild Edible Plants in the Development of Emulsion-Based Foods 63
FIGURE 2.6 Classification of hydrocolloids by origin.
Source: Adapted according to Gao et al. (2024).
substitutes and components of antidiabetic drugs, antioxidants, anticoagulants, and
encapsulating agents (Fuentes- Ortega et al., 2017; Inngjerdingen et al., 2013; Potin
et al., 1992). However, the prospects for their use in the food industry are practically
not considered. In view of the ancient traditions of Oriental medicine, much attention is
paid to plants (roots, leaves, owers, and fruits) from China, Japan, and India. Below,
we will review the properties and prospects for the use of some of the wild plants as
sources of polysaccharides, taking into account the part of the plant from which these
polysaccharides are extracted. The main focus will be on the opportunities for using
these compounds in food emulsion technology (Table 2.2).
2.3.2.1 Polysaccharides isolated from mucilage and gums
In addition to the well- known botanical polysaccharides, such as cellulose, humiarabic,
starch, pectin, or marine polysaccharides (agar, carrageenan, alginate), there are many
others that are often classied by country of origin. Polysaccharides from New Zealand
Native Plants may be unique and different from other plant polysaccharides due to the
geographical isolation of this region (Carnachan et al., 2019). Most polysaccharides
are found in the gum or mucilage of plants, which they produce in response to external
inuences: plant disease, injury to the trunk, and other factors. Some of the most
researched polysaccharides in New Zealand are Mamaku, Houhere, Puka, and Harakeke.
Puka gum is a water- soluble polysaccharide (type II arabinogalactan- protein)
extracted from the gum exudate of the native New Zealand puka tree (Meryta sinclairii)
(Wee et al., 2019). Puka gum (PG) is actually a protein conjugate. It contains up to 2%
protein, so it has broad application prospects as an emulsier and stabilizer at the same
time. Puka gum exhibits Newtonian behavior at concentrations below 4%, but at higher
newgenrtpdf
TABLE 2.2 The use of polysaccharides of some wild plants in the creation of food emulsions and emulsion- like foods
PLANT PLANT SOURCE HYDROCOLLOID
Apocynum
venetum
Leaves Polysaccharide conjugates
(ATPC- A)
tea
Meryta
Gum Puka gum Emulsifier, stabilizer 4– 15% soybean
sinclairii
FUNCTIONAL
PROPERTIES RESEARCH OBJECT
Emulsifier Stabilizer O/ W emulsion
2 and 3% ATPC- A
pH = 7– 8
oil emulsion
FOOD
APPLICATION REFERENCE
Emulsion- like
functional
foods
Emulsion- like
functional
foods
Cyathea
medullaris
Leaf stem core Glucuronomannan
backbone with branched
sugar side- chains of
galactose, arabinose,
non- methylesterified
glucuronic acid and other
Shear- thickening
Wiesenberger effect
Rheological properties
are very sensitive to
the cation valence
and concentrations
Mamaku
gum water
suspensions
Emulsion- like
functional
foods
simple sugars
11% non- starch
polysaccharide, 10.3%
starch, 49% sugars, 2.2%
crude protein and 18% ash
and 0.2% fat
Prosopis
trees
Mesquite gum
Prosopis gum
Exudate
l- arabinose, β- dgalactose, and
4- O- methyl- d- glucuronic
acid in a molar ratio of
4:2:1 with a small amount
Emulsifier, foaming
agent
Encapsulated
sesame oil
functional foods of
emulsion type
Emulsion- like
functional
foods
of protein from 2.0% to
4.8%
64 Wild Edible Plants
(Chen et al.,
2022)
(Riana et al.,
2022; Wee
et al., 2019)
(Bisht
et al., 2024;
Jaishankar
et al., 2015;
Wee et al.,
2015)
(Fuentes-
Ortega et al.,
2017)
Verbascum
nigrum L.
Amana
edulis
Echinops
setifer
Dioscorea
opposita
Thunb
Passiflora
foetida
Flowers Saponins with hydrocarbon
chains
Flowers Polysaccharides with different
protein content and
uronic acid
CHSS 1.5 × 105, CASS 2.6 ×
6
10
Shekartighal
Green part
76.85% carbohydrates,
9.24% protein, 4.91%
fat, 1.74% ash, 7.26%
moisture
Four
polysaccharides
Root vegetable
PFP1
Fruit
Polysaccharide conjugate with
protein, catecholamine and
leucoanthocyanidins
8 sugars, but the highest
content of galactose
(32.46%) and mannose
(48.83%)
Emulsifier O/ W emulsion of
rapeseed oil
Thickeners,
emulsifier
1% aqueous
solutions of
individual
components
Emulsifier, stabilizer,
O/ W emulsion Mayonnaise- type
antioxidant, moisture
absorbing agent
Emulsifier 0.2; 0.4; 0.6; 0.8;
1 % aqueous
solutions of
individual
polysaccharides.
Emulsions with
medium chain
triglyceride (1:1)
Antioxidant,
immunomodulator
Emulsion- like
functional
foods
sauces
Beverage
industry
Food
supplements
(Amrouche
et al., 2022;
Jarzębski
et al., 2018)
(Ji et al., 2019)
(Nemati &
Hesarinejad,
2024)
(Ma et al.,
2017)
(Song et al.,
2019)
(continued)
Wild Edible Plants in the Development of Emulsion-Based Foods 65
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