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46 Wild Edible Plants
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aagr0 010
Wild Edible Plants
in the Development
2
of EmulsionBased Foods
Sergey Gubsky, Anastasiia Sachko, and
Octavio Paredes- López
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Today, with growing consumer demand, there is a strong trend towards healthier and
more environmentally friendly food. This trend is directly related to plant- based foods.
On the one hand, they are environmentally friendly and have sufcient nutritional properties. On the other hand, it makes a signicant contribution to the challenge of a sustainable food system that can provide enough nutritious food for all in a world of limited
natural resources (Aschemann- Witzel et al., 2021). In general, there is a trend towards
reducing the dependence on animal products, the consumption of which is problematic
from an environmental, health, and food safety perspective.
A signicant part of foods is produced based on emulsions. Such emulsion- like
foods contain natural polysaccharides and proteins as functional ingredients. However,
the presence of high levels of oil and animal components (for example, egg yolk,
caseinates, and gelatin) in such products makes this food far from being a dietary
option (Alae- Carew et al., 2022). The use of egg products is associated with the risks
of salmonella contamination, worm contamination, increased cholesterol levels in the
product, and increased allergen content (Boukid & Gagaoua, 2022). A shift in consumer
interest towards healthy eating, an increasing number of vegans and vegetarians, and the
trend for plant- based foods all combine to explain the fact that pant- based food is now
mainstream among both scientists and consumers (Aschemann- Witzel et al., 2021).
48
DOI: 10.1201/9781003486794-2
Wild Edible Plants in the Development of Emulsion-Based Foods 49
In recent years, the direction of scientic research has shifted towards emulsion
systems containing plant- based raw materials as emulsier, stabilizer, gelling agent, and
thickener. The variety of possible applications allows researchers to use various natural
protein- containing raw materials, such as all types of beans, lentils, chickpeas, nuts,
peas, corn, soybeans, and many others, in the development of food emulsions- based
foods (Ningtyas et al., 2021; M. Tan et al., 2023). Another approach involves the use of
individual ingredients of plant origin or a combination of them to impart certain textural
and sensory properties to food. An example is the application of plant polysaccharides,
such as guar, carrageenan, pectin, starch, maltodextrin as thickening agents to stabilize
food systems. There is also considerable diversity in the forms in which these ingredients
are added to food formulations. These include isolates, concentrates, aquafaba, powder,
and gel (Amagliani & Schmitt, 2017; Ningtyas et al., 2021). After a while, the results
of these scientic studies can be found on store shelves in the form of emulsion- based
food products, such as mayonnaise and mayonnaise sauces, salad dressings, ketchup,
confectionery, ice cream, and others, which enjoy increased consumer attention. It
is worth emphasizing that despite the volume of scientic publications in this area,
most researchers are still focusing on the stage of a crude food emulsion made using
components from wild plants, rather than plant- based foods.
The purpose of this chapter is to emphasize the prospects of using wild plants as
raw materials for the development of food emulsions.
2.2 WILD EDIBLE PLANTS IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF EMULSION- BASED FOODS
2.2.1 Main Ingredients of Food Emulsion
Food emulsions are complex multi- component systems that are increasingly used in the
world food industry (C. Tan & McClements, 2021). Most food emulsion products are
oil- in- water (o/ w) systems, where droplets of vegetable or animal fats are suspended in
an aqueous medium (McClements, 2015) (Figure 2.1).
Food emulsion as a representative of macroemulsions is an unstable system from
the thermodynamic point of view, in which spontaneous droplet aggregation processes,
such as coalescence, occulation, and Ostwald ripening, can occur. All this leads to
its destruction and separation of the immiscible phases of oil and water. The role of
the food scientist is to control this physical instability and maintain the emulsion in a
kinetic metastable state to ensure adequate shelf- life of emulsion- based food products.
Emulsiers are used to ensure the stability of such systems. The main functions of the
emulsier are rapid adsorption on the surface of droplets at the water- oil interface, reducing the surface tension on this surface. The adsorption layer formed around the droplet
protects it from electrostatic interactions and is an additional steric factor (McClements,
2015). With the help of such a mechanism, stabilization of the emulsion is achieved,
preventing the sticking of oil droplets. The function of a thickener is to change the
50 Wild Edible Plants
FIGURE 2.1 Typical food emulsion formulation.
properties, mainly rheological, of the dispersion medium to impart a suitable consistency to the food system and as an additional stabilization factor. Natural proteins are
most often used as emulsiers, and natural polysaccharides and proteins as stabilizers
(Kupikowska- Stobba et al., 2024). In some cases, proteins with polysaccharides form
mixed or layered structures on the surface of oil droplets.
One of the most important parameters describing and classifying food emulsions is
the size of oil droplets in an aqueous dispersion medium. Thus, according to Serdaroğlu
et al. (2015), there are thermodynamically stable microemulsions (50– 100 nm) and
unstable nano- (20– 200 nm) and macro- (100 nm– 100 m) emulsions. The main difference between nano- and microemulsions is that nanoemulsions require an external force
to form, while microemulsions can be formed by self- assembly (C. Tan & McClements,
2021). Macroemulsions are most widely used in the food industry in the manufacture of
dressings, mayonnaise, margarine, dairy drinks, sauces, sweet desserts, and others (Bai
et al., 2021). The main problem of macroemulsions, as noted above, is their thermodynamic instability (Kupikowska- Stobba et al., 2024; McClements, 2015).
Depending on the type of dispersion medium, dispersed phase and their mutual
arrangement, emulsions are distinguished such as oil in water (O/ W), water in oil (W/
O), oil in oil (O/ O), double and mixed emulsions (M1 / O2/ B or B1/ B2/ O) and water in
water (W/ W) emulsions (Figure 2.2).
Wild Edible Plants in the Development of Emulsion-Based Foods 51
FIGURE 2.2 Types of emulsions depending on the nature of the dispersed phase and the
dispersion medium and their interrelationship.
Water- in- water emulsions can be formed in aqueous solutions of incompatible
polymers such as protein and polysaccharide. The thermodynamic incompatibility of
these components is due to the large size of their molecules and the greater similarity of
the polysaccharide to the aqueous medium (Dickinson, 2020).
Emulsion gels are dispersed systems that combine the properties of emulsion
systems and gels. They are widely used in the technology of low- calorie emulsion
products. Semi- soft systems are those in which oil droplets are not only stabilized by
an emulsier but also incorporated into a continuous gel network, which gives such
systems not only additional stability but also unique physical properties (Dickinson,
2012, 2015; Yiu et al., 2023). Since the production of nanoemulsions and emulsion gels
requires a higher degree of homogenisation of the system, three main techniques are used
for this purpose: ultrasonication, high- pressure homogenization, and microuidization
(Serdaroğlu et al., 2015).
In addition, multiply emulsions such as O/ W/ O and W/ O/ W are also becoming
increasingly popular. These emulsions are actually ‘emulsions of emulsions’. Such
systems are suitable for creating food products with reduced fat content. Since there
are two oil- water interfaces in such emulsions, two types of emulsiers must be used to
stabilize them (Dickinson, 2011; Muschiolik, 2007). To achieve a regular distribution of
oil droplets in the aqueous medium and to stabilize the resulting system, food emulsions
and emulsion gels use additional ingredients: an emulsier (mainly protein, but also
a modied polysaccharide), a stabilizer (usually a hydrocolloid or a combination of
52 Wild Edible Plants
FIGURE 2.3 Development of emulsion- based food.
polysaccharides), and a thickener (usually cellulose derivatives, modied starches and
polysaccharides) (Bai et al., 2021; Lingiardi et al., 2022) (Figure 2.3).
In the last decade, the stabilization of the water- oil interface with solid particles has
become a trend in colloidal chemistry of emulsion systems. Such emulsions are commonly known as Pickering emulsions (Berton- Carabin & Schroën, 2015; Dickinson,
2020; C. Tan & McClements, 2021). Pickering emulsions can become a complete fat
substitute in food products. However, the systems with the best properties were obtained
using modied silica particles. It is clear that such emulsions cannot be used as food
(Linke & Drusch, 2018). However, it has been shown that particles made from biodegradable materials, such as carbohydrates, proteins, or lipids, can be successfully
used for the Pickering stabilization of food- grade O/ W emulsions (Bai et al., 2021;
Berton- Carabin & Schroën, 2015). Later it was proven that Pickering stabilization is
very useful for W/ W emulsions (Dickinson, 2020).
It was mentioned above that food emulsions are part of macroemulsions. But
it should be noted that an important difference between food emulsions and nonfood emulsions is their sensory and textural characteristics, nutritional value, safety
and ability to be destroyed in the digestive tract (Bai et al., 2021) (Figure 2.2). This
determines the presence in the recipe, in addition to the main emulsion components,
of auxiliary ingredients as acidity, taste, smell, color, preservatives, and antioxidants
regulators.
Summarizing the above, it becomes obvious that the main components ensuring
the formation and stability of the emulsion are polysaccharides and proteins. It is these
compounds of wild plants that will be the subject of further discussion.
2.2.2 Capability of the Use of Wild Plants for the
Food Emulsion Development
As mentioned earlier, the replacement of ingredients in food emulsions with plant- based
ones, including those made from wild plants, has a number of advantages related to
Wild Edible Plants in the Development of Emulsion-Based Foods 53
calorie reduction, lower oil content without losing emulsion stability, reduced possibility of salmonella contamination and worm infestations, reduced potential for negative health effects, and the avoidance of animal products. Wild plants can become a
source of high- quality compounds for the food industry: ber, proteins, fats, macro- and
microelements, polyphenols, tannins, saponins, alkaloids, polysaccharides, proteins,
etc. (León- Lobos et al., 2022). Using, in particular, vegetable proteins instead of raw
eggs leads to a reduction in cholesterol consumption (Boukid & Gagaoua, 2022).
Many plant- based proteins have an amino acid prole close to the one recommended
by the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended (Appenroth et al., 2017). In
addition, the technologies for extracting proteins, polysaccharides and fats from plant
material are relatively simple and not very expensive. They are actively developed for
cultivated plants and will not be very different for wild plants. The use of local raw
materials, especially wild plants, which do not require special breeding and cultivation
conditions, will have a signicant impact on the price of products. Moreover, wild plants
are better adapted to environmental conditions, do not need fertilizers and insecticides,
some of which have been used for a long time and are well known to local residents
(Shaheen et al., 2017).
Environmental aspects related to reducing the pressure on livestock and the environment are important too (Alae- Carew et al., 2022). The active use of plant- based
ingredients can reduce the amount of pasture land, greenhouse gases, and the amount
of resources required to produce animal proteins. We should not forget about the ethical
aspects of slaughtering and livestock processing (Sha & Xiong, 2020).
Recently, there has been a trend towards replacing gluten- containing cereals with
gluten- free cereals. Wild grains often do not contain gluten, unlike rice, wheat, barley,
and other commonly cultivated ones. Therefore, proteins derived from wild plants can
be substitutes for gluten, as they do not cause immune- mediated celiac disease in people
who are genetically susceptible (Zannini et al., 2012). In general, these plant substitutes
are called pseudo- cereals and are added to a range of functional and healthy products
and baby food. The most common pseudo- cereals: quinoa, amaranth, and buckwheat
are originally wild plants, although they are now cultivated in some regions (X. Zhang
et al., 2023). Obviously, proteins isolated from natural pseudo- cereal sources will also be
promising food ingredients due to their high biocompatibility, safety and low cost (Mir
et al., 2021). Acorn our is also promising for gluten- free products (Martins et al., 2022).
In the literature, there are many references to plants that were wild, but are now
actively cultivated, for example, Cannabis sativa L., which has been a source of protein,
oil, ber for the food industry for many years (Xu et al., 2022).
However, despite the large number of advantages, it is necessary to emphasize
the main challenges and risks faced by the technologist when using non- traditional
raw materials, in particular wild plants. All plants that are used for food directly or by
extracting certain components from them have a stem, leaves, shoots, seeds, roots, and
other parts. If at least one part of a plant is edible, it is considered edible. However, it
is important to remember that some parts of plants can be poisonous, unt for human
consumption, harmful, irritating, etc. Therefore, it is extremely important to properly
identify, collect, and process wild plants (Shaheen et al., 2017)
Excessive collection of wild plants can lead to depletion of natural resources and
damage to ecosystems. Particular attention should be paid to the choice of plants. Active
54 Wild Edible Plants
use of extinct species can cause irreparable damage to the local biodiversity (Shaheen
et al., 2017). Some wild plants require special pre- treatment to remove harmful
substances or substances that affect their technological properties. An example is the
preliminary removal of tannins from acorns (Martins et al., 2022).
Consumers have a clear idea of how their favorite product should feel in their
mouths. How the ice cream melts, how the spread spreads on the bread, how the butter
spreads dressing coats the salad leaves, or how the ketchup goes on the fried meat.
The consistency of emulsion products directly relates to the properties of emulsiers,
stabilizers, gelling agents, and thickening agents used in the formulation. Obviously, the
properties of animal and vegetable components are very different, which may require
changes in the recipe, product composition, and technological processes (McClements
& Grossmann, 2021). In addition, the quality of consistency may correlate with the
instability of properties: herbal ingredients from different producers may have different
properties because they are derived from plants belonging to different botanical varieties,
grown in different soils, conditions, climates, etc. (McClements & Grossmann, 2024).
Just like the change in consistency, the consumer will clearly feel the change in
taste. We know from our experience that 67% fat mayonnaise tastes different from its
low- fat counterpart. This is obvious: we can imitate the structure, but it is very difcult
to imitate the sensory properties and create a product that is indistinguishable from the
traditional one that the consumer is used to (Ningtyas et al., 2021). Another problem
relates to the seasonality of many plant crops. The ability to harvest leaves, owers, and
fruits can be highly seasonal. This can create difculties in ensuring a steady supply
of fresh plant material. In addition, plants, especially fresh fruits, berries, owers, and
leaves, have a limited shelf- life and can spoil quickly. This requires special storage and
transport conditions (Moore et al., 2022).
As a result, the use of exotic plants for plant- based food production may not always
be justied. Good results obtained in the laboratory do not guarantee successful implementation in industrial production. The product may not be competitively priced, or the
plants concerned may be rare or demanding in terms of climate or growing conditions.
2.3 WILD PLANTS AS POTENTIAL SOURCES
OF INGREDIENTS FOR DEVELOPING FOOD
EMULSIONS
In general, different parts of plants can be used to isolate proteins, polysaccharides,
vitamins, polyphenols, and other substances: leaves, stems, owers, roots, bulbs, fruits,
seeds, nuts, etc. Often, different parts of a plant contain different chemical compounds
and in different amounts (Shaheen et al., 2017). While the medicinal properties of plants
have been used by mankind since ancient times, their chemical composition has only
recently been studied in detail. The rise in such research can be directly linked to both
consumer interest in eating plant- based and eco- friendly foods and the rst signs of
a possible global food crisis. Perhaps this is the reason for the ood of publications
Wild Edible Plants in the Development of Emulsion-Based Foods 55
describing the composition and properties of plant- based raw materials and their possible application in regions where there is overpopulation or problems with access to
nutritious, balanced food. Plants are often more accessible and cheaper than meat and
other animal products. This makes them an important component of daily nutrition
(León- Lobos et al., 2022).
The main vegetable components used in the creation of food emulsions can be conveniently divided into groups according to their chemical structure. Four main structureforming components can be distinguished: proteins, hydrocolloids (polysaccharides),
fats and bers – nanobers (Zhu et al., 2021). In this review, we will not focus on
antioxidants and bers, but will take a closer look at the three basic components of food
emulsions: proteins, fats, and polysaccharides that can be extracted from wild plants.
2.3.1 Proteins
In general, proteins play an important role in the functioning of living organisms: they
act as building blocks, perform structural and catalytic functions. In terms of food,
vegetable proteins, like animal, provide foaming, gelling, structuring, emulsifying,
thickening, binding, and other properties (Tiwari & Healy, 2023). Recently, the trend of
replacing animal proteins, in particular, egg products, with vegetable proteins in a wide
range of emulsion products has become very popular. Dairy, butter, emulsion sauces,
mayonnaise, cream desserts, and other products could be examples of such a transformation (Boukid & Gagaoua, 2022; McClements & Grossmann, 2021). Plant proteins
have the potential and prospects to satisfy the growing human need for alternative protein sources (Di Stefano et al., 2018). The most common are the protein components
of soya beans, lentils, peas, wheat, corn, and mung beans. However, isolates extracted
from potatoes, faba beans, lentils, some weeds, and wild plants, which will be discussed
below, are also used successfully (McClements & Grossmann, 2024).
The classication of plant proteins summarized by the Healy & Tiwari (2023)
group is really convenient (Figure 2.4).
It consists in dividing proteins into groups according to the type of raw material
from which they are obtained:
• Proteins isolated from cereals. This group includes mainly popular cultivated
cereals, such as wheat, rice, oats, barley, corn, millet, sorghum, maize, and
others. The protein content of these crops ranges from 6– 17% (Tiwari & Healy,
2023). Most of them are agricultural crops, so we will not focus on them in
this section.
• Proteins isolated from the seeds from legumes (beans) and those from trees
(nuts). This group includes soybeans, groundnuts, peas, kidney beans, mung
beans, urd beans, chickpeas, pigeon peas, fava beans, lentils, cowpeas, lupines,
and others are typical examples of legumes. Plant seeds naturally contain
proteins, polysaccharides, some fats and minerals (McClements, 2020). Their
protein content ranges from 20– 25%, but can reach 40%.
• Isolates obtained from seaweed aquaculture. Their protein content ranges
from 1.3– 47% by dry weight and directly depends on the species of algae and
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