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26 Wild Edible Plants
Antioxidant activity of brown algae usually is higher than red and green seaweeds (Ismail
et al., 2023). The hydrocolloids such as agar, alginates, and carrageenan are widely used
in the food industry as thickening, gelling, and emulsifying agents. Global annual production of these seaweed polysaccharides is about 100,000 tons with an estimated cost
of more than US$ 1.1 billion (Liao et al., 2021). The presence of these polysaccharides
in seaweeds positively affect the structure and strength of food products enriched with
them. Therefore, seaweeds contain numerous bioactive compounds and can be used as
valuable ingredients in the preparation of functional foods.
Meat functional products. The preparation of any functional product is based on
increasing the content of compounds with benecial physiological effects and/ or reducing the content of compounds whose consumption could have adverse consequences
for consumer’s health, while the addition of the functional food ingredients will also
affect the technological properties of developed products. The main aim of seaweed
incorporation in the meat products is to improve the composition of fatty acids and to
reduce the content of cholesterol, salt, and fat. Altogether, seaweed could play a role of
antioxidants stabilizing the quality of meat products (Peñalver et al., 2020; Stabnikova
et al., 2021). Seaweeds or seaweed extracts have been added to meat products, such as
burgers, frankfurters, pâtés, sausages, and steaks (Table 1.5).
Addition of a spray- dried extract from brown seaweed Laminaria digitata at level
of 0.5% (w/ w) decreased lipid oxidation in cooked minced pork patties stored in modied atmosphere packs (70% N2:30% CO2) up to 14 days at 4oC (Moroney et al., 2013).
Lipid oxidation expressed as 2- thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in mg
malondialdehyde (MAD)/ kg pork in control patties and patties added with seaweed on
day 1 was 1.662 and 1.095; on day 4 it was 1.868 and 1.261, while on day 14 it was
2.795 and 2.273, respectively.
Laminaria japonica powder was added, 3%, to replace 10 % of fat in regular- fat
(20%) pork patties (Choi et al., 2012). The content of fat in uncooked reduced- fat pork
patties decreased from 22.98 to 11.88 and the content of ash, digested carbohydrate, and
dietary ber increased from 2.21 to 3.19; 2.79 to 6.19, and 0.12 to 2.81%, respectively.
The energy value of patties with seaweed was 210 kcal/ 100 g instead of 310 of regularfar pork patties. The sensory evaluations showed the greatest overall acceptability in
reduced- fat pork patties with 3% of seaweed powder 8.33 in comparison with 7.56 for
regular- fat ones.
Seaweeds could be used for the replacement of the dietary salt in the meat products
to reduce sodium content because of the high salt intake associated with cerebrovascular, heart disease, ventricular hypertrophy, and kidney injury (Thomas- Danguin
et al., 2019). Preparation of reformulated frankfurters with 1% (w/ w) of brown algae
Himanthalia elongata (sea spaghetti) dried powder allowed to reduce salt content by
50% and pork fat content by 21% without change in overall acceptability. Content of
sodium in reformulated frankfurters, 0.548 g/ 100 g, was much lower than in the control
ones without seaweed, 0.853 g/ 100 g (Vilar et al., 2020).
Addition of lyophilized aqueous extract of the brown seaweed Cystoseira barbata
at an amount of 0.01– 0.04 % to meat containing 80 mg/ kg of sodium nitrite allowed the
reduction of lipid oxidation in turkey meat sausages on the fth day of cold storage by
36%. Meanwhile, on day 15 of cold storage, the TBARS value for turkey meat sausages
with sodium nitrite 80 mg/ kg and seaweed extract (0.02– 0.04 %) was the same as for
the control sausages with sodium nitrite 150 mg/ kg of meat and 0.045% vitamin C. So,
Wild Edible Plants, Berries, Mushrooms, and Seaweeds 27
TABLE 1.5 Functional food products with seaweeds
FOOD
SEAWEED
Laminaria
digitata
Laminaria
japonica
PRODUCT CHANGES IN RECIPE
Pork patties Addition of seaweed
extract, 0.5%
Pork patties Addition of seaweed
powder, 3%,
instead of fat, 10%
Himanthalia
elongata
Frankfurters Replacement of salt
1% with seaweed
1% (w/ w)
Cystoseira
barbata
Kappaphycus
alvarezii
Cystoseira,
Fucus,
Turkey meat
sausages
Chicken
sausages
Meat- based
products
Addition of lyophilized
extract, 0.02– 0.04 %
Addition of powder,
2, 4, and 6%
Addition of seaweed
powder, 2%
Laminaria
Fucus
vesiculosus
Minced fish Addition of
antioxidant dietary
fiber, 2%
Ascophyllum
nodosum
Himanthalia
elongata
Wholemeal
bread
Wholemeal
breadstick
Addition of seaweed, 4%Increase the dietary
Replacement of flour
with seaweed
powder, 17%
Sargassum
marginatum
Semolina
pasta
Replacement of
semolina, 2.5%,
with seaweed
powder
Monostroma
nitidum
Noodles Addition of seaweed
powder, 8%
EFFECT COMPARED
TO THE CONTROL REFERENCE
Decrease lipid
oxidation during
Moroney
et al., 2013
storage
Increase fiber
content, decrease
Choi et al.,
2012
fat content and
energy value
Reduce of sodium
content by 36%
Reduce of the
sodium nitrite by
Vilar et al.,
2020
Sellimi et al.,
2017
47%
Slowed down
oxidative
Pindi et al.,
2017
processes
Increase content
of selenium and
Kryzhova
et al., 2021
iodine
Reduce lipid
oxidation during
Diaz- Rubio
et al., 2011
frozen storage
Hall et al.,
fiber content by
2012
34%
Increase content of
total phenolics
by 81%, dietary
Cox & Abu-
Ghannam,
2013
fiber by 44%,
antioxidant
activity by 47%
Increase content of
total phenolics
Prabhasankar
et al., 2009
by 22%, crude
fiber by 4 times,
DPPH radical
scavenging
activity by 45%
Increase content of
crude fiber by 4
Chang & Wu
2008
times, decrease
content of far by
24%
(continued)
28 Wild Edible Plants
TABLE 1.5 (Continued)
FOOD
SEAWEED
Enteromorpha
compressa
PRODUCT CHANGES IN RECIPE
Snacks Replacement of
chickpea flour,
7.5%, with
Caulerpa
racemosa
Semi- sweet
biscuits
seaweed powder
Replacement of flour,
5%, with seaweed
powder
Kappaphycus
alvarezii
Gracilaria
domingensis
Muffins Addition of seaweed
powder, 2%
Fermented
milk
Replacement of
gelatin with
aqueous seaweed
Himanthalia
elongata
Semi- hard
cheese
Ulva reticulate Chocolate Addition seaweed
extract
Addition of dehydrated
seaweeds 10 g/ kg
of curd
powder
EFFECT COMPARED
TO THE CONTROL REFERENCE
Increase content of
iron by 3.8 and
Mamatha
et al., 2007
calcium by 2.4
times
Increase content of
total phenolics
Kumar et al.,
2017
by 28%, dietary
fiber by 4.7 times
Increased content
of crude fiber by
Mamat et al.,
2018
50%,
Vegetarian
substitute of
Estevam
et al., 2016
gelatin for dairy
products
Increase antioxidant
activity by 11%
100 g of chocolate
contain 11.8 mg
of bioavailable
Del Olmo
et al., 2018
Banu &
Mageswari,
2015
iron
because of the high antioxidant capacity, the addition of seaweed extracts in meat
products allows the reduction of the amount of sodium nitrite, ensuring an increase of
the healthy value of functional products (Sellimi et al., 2017). Addition of red seaweed
Kappaphycus alvarezii (elkhorn sea moss) powder to chicken sausages slowed down
oxidative processes estimated with two- thiobarbituric acid test compared to the control
sample during 12 days of storage at 4°C (Figure 1.5) (Pindi et al., 2017).
Seaweed is a rich source of such essential trace elements as selenium and iodine,
adequate intakes of which are required for optimal thyroid function (Köhrle, 2023).
The stability of selenium and iodine in the functional meat products with powder of
brown seaweeds Fucus serratus, Cystoseira barbata, and Laminaria digitata added in a
quantity of 2% (w/ w) to the minced meat prepared under varied cooking procedure was
studied (Table 1.6) (Kryzhova et al., 2021).
Recommended dietary allowances for iodine is 150 µg per day for most adults
(Trumbo et al., 2001). According to the World Health Organization, the recommended
daily intake of selenium is from 30 to 40 g/ day (Stabnikova et al., 2019). It looks that
Laminaria has a too high iodine and selenium content, so, it is not reasonable to use
it for the preparation of functional meat products in such a high quantity to prevent
over dosage of iodine and selenium daily intake. However, Cystoseira and Fucus can
Wild Edible Plants, Berries, Mushrooms, and Seaweeds 29
FIGURE 1.5 Change TBARS, mg MDA/ kg, during storage of chicken sausages added with
0, 2, 4, and 6 % of seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii powder.
Source: Adapted from Pindi et al. (2017).
TABLE 1.6 Stability of iodine and selenium in meat products enriched with seaweeds
IODINE SELENIUM
MEAT
PRODUCTS
TEMPERATURE,
O
C SEAWEED
LOSS,
%
µG/ 50 G
OF
PRODUCT
LOSS,
%
µG/ 50 G
OF
PRODUCT
Fried cutlets 150– 170 Cystoseira barbata 27 242 n/ d n/ d
Fucus serratus 22 201 n/ d n/ d
Steamed
cutlets
100– 110 Cystoseira barbata 22 332 27 37
Fucus serratus 15 208 26 32
Meat balls 100 Cystoseira barbata 50 186 21 39
Laminaria digitata 50 135 19 34
Quenelles 100 Laminaria digitata 61 574 16 136
Dumplings 100 Laminaria digitata 38 373 51 82
Grilled
sausages
Source: Adapted from Kryzhova et al. (2021).
n/ d – not determined.
110 Cystoseira barbata 16 305 8 43
Laminaria digitata 18 200 7 38
be recommended to be used in a quantity of 2% for the preparation of functional meat
products to enrich diets with these essential trace elements.
Fish functional products. The addition of antioxidant dietary ber (AODF) obtained
from brown seaweed Fucus vesiculosus in an amount of 2% to minced horse mackerel
30 Wild Edible Plants
allowed the reduction of lipid oxidation during frozen storage due to the high content
of total phenolics, 5.4 g/ 100 g DW, in AODF. The free radical scavenging capacity of
minced samples, estimated with the ABTS method, in the control and sample with 2%
of AODF were, µmol/ g DW: at the beginning of storage 1.2 and 8.1; after 2 months 0.5
and 4.2; after 3 months 0 and 2.5, and after 5 months 0 and 2.1, respectively (DiazRubio et al., 2011).
Bakery functional products are other subjects to be enriched with seaweeds.
Including seaweeds in recipes of bakery products caused an increase of dietary content, their nutritional and health values, extension of shelf- life, and reduction of energy
value. Altogether, incorporation of seaweeds resulted in changes of technological
characteristics of bakery product by increasing the water absorption of the dough,
reducing stickiness properties, increasing the value of bread rmness, changing the
color and aroma (Mamat et al., 2014; Peñalver et al., 2020). The addition of brown
algae Ascophyllum nodosum, 4%, to wholemeal bread led to an increase of the dietary
ber content by 34% (from 13.3 to 17.7 g/ 100 g of bread) (Hall et al., 2012). The
increase of dietary content by 44% in breadsticks was observed when brown seaweed
Himanthalia elongata powder was added to replace whole meal our, 17%, while the
content of total phenolic substances increased by 81% from 27.7 to 145.9 mg GAE/
100 g DW and antioxidant activity, determined by DPPH assay, by 47% (Cox & AbuGhannam, 2013).
Replacement of 2.5% of semolina with brown seaweed Sargassum marginatum
powder resulted in an increase in cooked pasta of crude ber content by four times,
content of total phenolic compounds by 22%, and DPPH radical scavenging activity by
145% (Prabhasankar et al., 2009). The powder of green seaweed Monostroma nitidum,
harvested in the South China Sea, was incorporated into noodles in amounts from 4 to
8% (Chang & Wu 2008). The content of the crude ber increased 4.5 times in noodles
made with 8% seaweed powder, and the content of fat decreased by 24%. The addition
of seaweed increased the cooking yield of noodles because of water absorption by the
bers and polysaccharides present in the alga. Higher water absorption caused a change
in the structure of the noodles and increased their softness and sponginess.
Replacement of chickpea our, 7.5%, with green seaweed Enteromorpha compressa
(current name Ulva compressa) powder in traditional Indian snack Pakoda resulted in
increased content of iron (from 26.4 to 99.6 mg/ 100 g) and calcium (from 30.1 to 71.0
mg/ 100 g), while sensorial quality was acceptable (Mamatha et al., 2007).
Addition of red seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii (elkhorn sea moss) powder in the
amounts from 2– 10% to wheat our used for mufn production had an adverse effect
on the results of the nal product sensory evaluation, and only mufns made with 2%
of seaweed powder showed good acceptability. Incorporation of 2% seaweed increased
the content of crude ber by 50%, while the contents of protein and carbohydrate did
not change (Mamat et al., 2018).
Replacement of 5% of rened our with green alga Caulerpa racemosa (sea grapes)
dry powder in semi- sweet biscuits resulted in an increase of the content, %: protein by
8.4; ash by 31; total phenolic by 28; anti- oxidative parameters, estimated using DPPH
assay, by 4%; using ABTS assay by, 6.4%; increase dietary ber content by 4.7 times;
decrease of fat content by 8%, while the sensory score declined but stayed in the acceptable range (Kumar et al., 2017).
Wild Edible Plants, Berries, Mushrooms, and Seaweeds 31
It should be noted that most studies show that to maintain over acceptability of
bakery, the amount of algae added should not exceed 4%. Otherwise, there may be
a signicant change in the technological and sensory characteristics of the nished
product, including taste, color, and smell. This was shown for wheat bread enriched
with Fucus vesiculosus powder (Arufe et al., 2018); gluten- free bread with addition
of Ascophyllum nodosum powder (Różyło et al., 2016); mufn supplemented with
Kappaphycus alvarezii powder (Mamat et al., 2018); pasta with Sargassum marginatum
powder (Prabhasankar et al., 2009), and others.
Dairy functional products. It was shown that aqueous extract of red seaweed
Gracilaria domingensis, an agarophyte alga, could replace gelatin, a thickener of animal
origin, in fermented milk products (Estevam et al., 2016). The titratable acidity, pH, and
composition of microbial population of the fermented milks with seaweed extract were
similar and texture parameters were even higher than the control with gelatin technology. Thus, seaweed extracts could be used as vegetarian gelatin substitutes for dairy
products. Incorporation of dehydrated edible seaweeds Himanthalia elongata, collected
in Atlantic coastal waters, 10 g, per 1 kg of the curd in the manufacturing of semihard cheese decreased content of dry matter by 8.7%, slightly increased (by 11%) antioxidant activity, but did not inuence the cheese microbial community and enzymatic
activities of microbial origin (Del Olmo et al., 2018).
Sweets and chocolate. According to the World Health Organization (2008) “anaemia
is a public health problem that affects populations in both rich and poor countries”, and
iron deciency being the leading cause of anaemia, affecting over 2000 million people.
It was proposed to enrich chocolate with a green seaweed Ulva reticulate powder, which
is known for its high iron content. One hundred grams of seaweed chocolate contained
30 g of carbohydrate, 8.9 g of fat, 10.9 g of protein, 56 mg of iron and 11.8 mg of bioavailable iron. Meanwhile, the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), mg/ day: for
children (4– 8 y) is 10; (9– 13 y) is 8; adolescent (14– 18 y) is 11 for boys, 15 for girls;
adults (19– 50 y) is 8 for men, and 18 for women (Institute of Medicine, 2001). Seaweed
chocolate possessed the highest score for overall acceptability, and clinic trials showed
the promising therapeutic effect of seaweed chocolate consumption by anemic adolescent girls (Banu & Mageswari, 2015).
Thus, the use of seaweed extracts is effective for increasing the content of substances
with antioxidant capacity, incorporation of which into food products can slow down
lipid oxidation and increase their shelf- life. At the same time, the addition of seaweed
in the form of dry powder or as a partial replacement of traditional components of food
products, increases their nutritional value by variation in the chemical composition,
namely diminishing the content of fat and energy value, simultaneously increasing the
content of ber and mineral elements, especially iron, iodine, and selenium, as well
as antioxidant activity due to rising of the phenolic compound concentrations that
allows the shelf- life of the developed products to be extended. Several studies have
indicated that the amounts of seaweeds or their extracts added to food products should
be limited to 2– 4%, since exceeding these values has a negative impact on the sensory
characteristics of the developed functional products.
Except for using seaweeds as ingredients of functional food, they have been
consumed directly as food for a long time, mainly in Asian countries (Figure 1.6).
Brown seaweeds Wakame (Undaria pinnatida), Kombu (Saccharina japonica,
formerly Laminaria japonica), and red seaweed Nori (Porphyra spp.) are the three most
32 Wild Edible Plants
FIGURE 1.6 Seaweeds in Japanese cuisine: Wakame (a); Nori seaweed sheets (b); Nori
sushi (c).
consumed algae in Asian cuisine. Nori is the most famous seaweed because it is used to
make sushi rolls. Among the green algae, the genus Ulva is the best known, used mainly
in salads.
It is necessary to take into account the characteristics of seaweeds, which complicate their consumption in nutrition, namely their ability to accumulate trace metals
from the surrounding aquatic environment, the presence of which in high concentrations
is toxic. Twelve metals (arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, thallium, and zinc) have been included on the Priority
Pollutants List by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2022), which should
be regulated in Clean Water Act programs. Available data show that seaweed may contain arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, and iodine in signicant amounts depending on
their concentration in surrounding water (Squadrone et al., 2018). So, the content of
these compounds should be under strong control in seaweed additives used for food
preparation.
1.6 CONCLUSIONS
A lot of wild edible plants, berries, mushrooms as well as seaweeds have high contents of
valuable compounds, such as dietary bers, vitamins, phenols, avonoids, antioxidants,
and microelements. All of them have great potential as ingredients for production of
functional foods with enriched nutritional and health value.
The use of the listed representatives of wild nature in the preparation of food
products can serve a variety of activities and provide satisfactory results: due to the high
antioxidant activity, they can replace synthetic antioxidants and preservatives; reduce
the amount of nitrate used in the preparation of meat products; reduce the sodium content in dietary products by replacing salt in their recipes; they can replace articial
dyes in a variety of food products; fortify food products with essential trace elements
required by the human body; prolong the shelf- life of the nished products due to
slowing down of oxidative processes, and play the role of prebiotics in the human body.
However, incorporation of ingredients having biological activity should be under strong
Wild Edible Plants, Berries, Mushrooms, and Seaweeds 33
control, in particular, this concerns functional food enriched with seaweeds or medicinal
plants to avoid overdose of individual components. However, overall, as described in
this chapter wild materials have a great potential for the development of new functional
food products with health benets.
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