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16 Wild Edible Plants
Just like many other wild berries, sloe is associated with many legends and myths.
Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) is called the Mother of the Woods or the Dark Crone of
the Woods. In ancient Egyptian myths, blackthorn was associated with the goddess
of immortality, who consumed fruits to preserve her youth and beauty. This plant
symbolizes strength and vitality, despite its thorns and thorny surface. In traditional
European mythology, blackthorn was considered a sacred plant that protected against
evil spirits and magical powers. At the same time, blackthorn is linked with danger and
survival, as well as with the dark forces of witchcraft and magic, being the keeper of
dark secrets. In Scottish legends, the blackthorn tree was associated with the Cailleach,
a divine hag – the taker of life, who having descended from the mountain, walked on
the ground knocking with her staff from blackthorns bringing winter storms, snow and
Death. Old Testament legends say that the Lord himself appeared to Moses from a
burning thorn bush. According to the New Testament, a crown of thorns was placed on
the head of Jesus Christ at his crucixion.
Prunus spinosa fruits are traditionally used in phytotherapy for the treatment of
coughs but also as a diuretic, laxative, antispasmodic, and anti- inammatory agent
(Sabatini et al., 2020). As already said, sloes have a sour and highly astringent taste, but
if fruits are harvested after the rst frost, the astringency will reduce, and the berries will
become slightly sweet. Due to its taste, the fruits of P. spinosa are not explored commer-
cially, but traditionally, sloes could be used in households for manufacturing of jams,
cakes, wine, and liqueur. In recent years, it has attracted attention as functional food due
to high content of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity. The dry matter content was 30.6% in blackthorn fruits grown in Turkey (Marakoğlu et al., 2005); 31.7% in
fruits grown in Spain (Ruiz- Rodríguez et al., 2014); 39.1% in fruits grown in Portugal
(Barros et al., 2010a). However, the moisture content of 18.0% was reported for blackthorn fruits grown in Poland (Sikora еt al., 2013). One of the reasons for this variation
may be the difference in part of fruit taken for moisture determination. According to
the food commodity dictionary published in Poland in 1957, the dry matter content
in blackthorn fruits was 30%, while in the esh its meaning reached 17% (Sikora еt
al., 2013).
Content of main nutritional components in Poland blackthorn fruits, g/ 100 g FW,
was: protein, 0.8; fat, 0.4; sugars, 5.5; ber, 5.8; ash 0.7 (Sikora еt al., 2013). Composition
of blackthorn fruits harvested in Turkey was, g/ 100 g FW: protein, 3.4; crude oil, 2.1;
1ber, 4.6; ash, 2.7 (Marakoğlu et al., 2005). Organic acids were presented, mg/ 100
g FW, by citric acid, 27.6; malic acid, 1.3; succinic acid, 2.8, and fumaric acid, 2.0
(Celik et al., 2017). Mineral content of blackthorn fruits was, mg/ 100 g FW: potassium,
1870.7; calcium, 152.4; magnesium, 96.8; phosphorus, 151.4; sulphur, 500.0; sodium,
53.0; boron, 27.0; aluminum, 2.6, and iron, 1.6 (Marakoğlu et al., 2005).
Blackthorn fruits contain antioxidants such as vitamin C, 23.8 mg/ 100 g FW;
polyphenols, 599.2 mg GAE / 100 g FW; anthocyanins, 71.8 mg/ 100 g FW; β- carotene
0.04 g/ 100 g FW; antioxidant activity, 43.6 M Trolox equivalent (TE)/ g (Sikora еt al.,
2013). Almost the same content of vitamin C was found also in Turkish blackthorn fruits
25.5 mg/ 100 g FW (Celik et al., 2017). The content of total phenol compounds in blackthorn fruits from Serbia varied from 153 to 2094 mg GAE/ 100 g FW, but the content of
total avonoids was 42 to 131 mg QE / 100 g FW (Veličković et al., 2014). The content of
vitamin C in the study by Jabłońska- Ryś et al. (2009) was 22 mg/ 100 g FW; the content
Wild Edible Plants, Berries, Mushrooms, and Seaweeds 17
of phenolic compounds was 403 mg gallic acid/ 100 g FW, while antioxidant capacity
was 14.2 mM Fe/ 100 g FW (FRAP) and 0.53 mM TE/ 100 g FW (ABTS). The content
of polyphenolic compounds in Polish sloe berry was as follows: total phenols, 1065 mg
gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/ 100 g DW; anthocyanins, 312 mg cyanidin- 3- glucoside
equivalent (CGE)/ 100 g DW; and individual polyphenols, mg/ 100 g DW: caffeic acid,
100; p- coumaric acid, 7; chlorogenic acid, 145; myricetin, 14; while quercetin, rutin,
(−)- epicatechin, and (+ )- catechin were not detected (Najgebauer- Lejko et al., 2021). It
was shown that Spain’s blackthorn fruits could serve as a source of natural antioxidants.
It had a high content, per 100 g FW: anthocyanins, 1432 mg pelargonidin 3- glucoside
eq; phenolic acids, 729 mg gallic acid eq; avonols, 134 mg rutin eq; anthocyanins,
1432 mg pelargonidin 3- glucoside; total phenolic compounds, 2295 mg, but low content of vitamin C, 11.3 mg, mainly dehydroascorbic acid, 11.2. The presence of gallic
acid, caffeic acid, quercetin 3- glycoside, cyanidin 3- rutinoside, cyanidin 3- glucoside,
and peonidin 3- glucoside in blackthorn fruits was conrmed (Ruiz- Rodríguez et al.,
2014). Antioxidant capacity of Prunus spinosa fruits, mmol of TE/ 100 g FW, were 5.08
(determined with ABTS- 2,2´- azinobis (3- ethylbenzothiazoline- 6- sulfonic acid) radical
cation – assay); 1.14 (determined with DPPH - 2,2´- diphenyl- 1- picrylhydrazyl radical –
assay; 10.81 (determined with FRAP – ferric reducing antioxidant power – assay), and
2255.57 mg of gallic acid eq/ 100 g FW (determined with Folin- Ciocalteu assay).
Contents of phenolic compounds in blackthorn fruits was determined, µg/ 100 g
FW, as protocatechuic acid, 25.7; vanillic acid, 3.2; rutin, 3.2; gallic acid, 37.6; catechin,
212.0; chlorogenic acid, 1298.5; caffeic acid, 1075.3; syringic acid, 267.3; p- coumaric
acid, 236.3; ferulic acid, 97.2, and phloridzin, 71.9, and total antioxidant capacity,
0.102 mmol Trolox equivalent/ 100 g FW (Celik et al., 2017). Chlorogenic and caffeic
acids were the most abandoned compounds present in Prunus spinosa picked up in
Turkey (Celik et al., 2017), caffeoylquinic acid was the predominant compound among
27 phenolics found in blackthorn fruits harvested in Serbia (Marčetić et al., 2022).
Extracts of blackthorn fruits possessed modest antibacterial activity against
Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus faecalis (Marčetić
et al., 2022); S. aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella abony
(Veličković et al., 2014) E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. enteritidis, Shigella sonnei, Proteus
vulgaris, Clostridium perfringens, B. subtilis, S. aureus, Listeria inocua, Sarcina lutea,
and Micrococcus avus (Radovanović et al., 2013) and antifungal activity against
Candida albicans (Veličković et al., 2014).
It was suggested that polyphenols as food components could play the role
of prebiotics in the human body (Milutinović et al., 2021). This was conrmed for
blackthorn fruit extract, addition of which stimulated growth of the probiotic yeast
Saccharomyces boulardii (Marčetić et al., 2022).
Taking into account consumers’ demands for healthy food, new functional food
products containing natural materials are developed. There are some studies that
proposed using the blackthorn extract for preparation of new foods benecial for consumers. It was shown that extract of blackthorn fruits can be used as a natural dye and as
preservatives due to the antioxidant and antibacterial properties of polyphenols present
in it. Application of the extract of Prunus spinosa was proposed as a purple colorant
in the preparation of dairy snacks, namely, donut icing and Brazilian candy Beijinhos
(Backes et al., 2020) (Table 1.3).
18 Wild Edible Plants
TABLE 1.3 Functional food products with fruits of wild- growing shrubs
WILD FRUIT
Prunus
spinosa
FOOD
PRODUCT
Donut
icing,
Beijinhos
CHANGES IN
RECIPE
Addition of extract
as colorant,
0.7%
EFFECT COMPARED TO
THE CONTROL REFERENCE
A more intense
purple color
Improvement of the
texture properties
Prunus
spinosa
Ice cream Addition of minced
pulp, 10%
Improvement of
chemical and physical
characteristics
Prunus
spinosa
Probiotic
yogurt
Addition of
sweetened
puree, 10%
Increase of fiber
content and
antioxidant
capacity
Prunus
spinosa
Yogurt Encapsulated
extract
Prolongation of
bioactive compound
release in yogurt
Prunus
spinosa
Crataegus Bread Addition, 5% to
Crataegus
monogyna
Sausages Addition of extract
into the natural
casing
whole wheat
flour
Biscuits Addition, 9%, of
flour mixture
Reduction in the
number of LAB on
the outer surface
Increase of nutritional
value and antioxidant
capacity
Increase of total phenol
content, antioxidant
activity
Crataegus
monogyna
Crataegus
monogyna
Pork
burger
patties
Addition of extract
in amount
equivalent to
quercetin, 230
mg/ kg
Yogurt Addition of extract,
1% (w/ w)
Inhibition of lipid
oxidation and
discoloration during
12 days of storage
at 2oC
Increase of total phenol
content, antioxidant
activity
Crataegus
monogyna
Water kefir Diluted hawthorn
pulps (Brix
Functional probiotic
beverage production
Backes et al.,
2020
Ürkek et al.,
2019; Yüksel,
2015
Najgebauer-
Lejko et al.,
2021
Blagojević et al,
2022
Mandic et al.,
2018
Borczak et al.,
2016
Chis et al.,
2009
Ganhão et al.,
2010
Dabija et al.,
2018
Ozcelik et al.,
2021
10– 11%)
Addition of blackthorn extract in recipes of confections ensured their intense purple
color. However, its intensity decreased after 24 h. Using blackthorn extract in the icing
solution provided a lower rmness and consistency of the donuts, and incorporation
of extract in the recipe for Beijinhos made them softer and chewier. Thus, the addition
of natural colorant improved the texture properties while imparting the color to both
confections.
Wild Edible Plants, Berries, Mushrooms, and Seaweeds 19
Frozen blackthorn fruits were thawed, the seeds were removed, and the minced
pulp, 10%, was added to ice cream (Yüksel, 2015). The addition of blackthorn fruit
pulp did not change the content of total solids and ash, decreased the content of protein by 16%, fat by 35%, pH value by 19%, and increased titratable acidity by 4 times.
The content of total phenolic compounds and total avonoids increased by 77% and
31%, respectively. Incorporation of fruit pulp had a positive effect on the physical,
thermal, and sensorial characteristics of ice cream: viscosity increased by 6%, overrun
by 19%, rst dripping by 7%, and complete melting time by 45%. Overall acceptability
decreased slightly from 7.9 for the control to 7.52 for ice cream with 10% of blackthorn
fruit pulp. Similar results were obtained in the study of Ürkek et al. (2019). In addition
to the above, the authors showed an increase in the content of microelements such as
potassium and manganese when ice cream was enriched with sloe pulp (Ürkek et al.,
2019). Altogether, ice cream with blackthorn pulp had a higher score than the control in
color, appearance, gumming structure, and general acceptability. So, it was concluded
that blackthorn may be used as a natural dye in ice cream production.
The addition of sweetened sloe berry puree in the amount of 10% to probiotic yoghurt did not change the content of protein and ash, but increased the content of total
solids by 14%, carbohydrates by 51%, ber in 6.4 times, and reduced the amount of fat
by 24% (Najgebauer- Lejko et al., 2021). While the content of total phenolic compounds
increased from 0 to 872 mg GAE/ 100 g; anthocyanin content from 0.15 to 9.96 mg
CGE/ 100 g; antioxidant capacity determined by FRAP from 0.18 to 0.75 mM Fe
2+
/
100 g, titratable acidity (% lactic acid) from 0.81 to 1.11, and the concentration of
aromatic compound diacetyl from 2.44 to 3.45 mg/ 100 g. The viability of the starter
lactic acid bacteria Streptococcus thermophilus, Bidobacterium animalis ssp. lactis
and Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus, was not inuenced by the incorporation
of sloe berry puree, and there were no signicant differences in sensory quality between
yogurts. Thus, authors concluded that blackthorn fruits could be used in functional food
preparation as a natural colorant whose application also increases the content of dietary
ber, aromatic compounds, and antioxidant activity of the product.
The addition of encapsulated blackthorn extract with halloysite, maltodextrin,
and maltodextrin- halloysite composite ensured the prolonged release of bioactive
compounds in yogurt increasing its biological value (Blagojević et al, 2022). The
incorporation of blackthorn fruit extract into the natural casing of Kranjska sausages
resulted in a reduction in the number of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) on the outer surface
of the vacuum- packed sausages stored for 60 days at 4 °C (Mandic et al., 2018).
Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), known also as common hawthorn, single- seed
hawthorn, one- seed hawthorn, or May ower, is a large thorny shrub or a small deciduous
owering tree in the rose family Rosaceae (Figure 1.4B). The Latin name comes from
the Greek “cratas”, which means strength referring to the hard wood, while the species
name monogyna means “monostylous” (single- seeded). Hawthorn is native to Europe,
Asia, North America, northwestern Africa, but it has been introduced throughout the
world. They bear small, oval, dark red berry- like fruit with a single seed called haws.
Hawthorn is a tree of duality endowed with magical powers bestowing good luck
and misfortune: it was revered and feared equally. It was believed that the hawthorn tree
should not be cut down or broken, otherwise such a person would face troubles, illness,
death of loved ones, or poverty. At the same time, since ancient times it was considered
20 Wild Edible Plants
that hawthorn was able to defend from evil spirits. In Celtic mythology, it is one of the
most sacred trees, symbolizing love and protection. In ancient Greece and Rome, hawthorn was revered as a sign of good luck, fertility, and love.
Hawthorn is truly a wonderful plant with many health and nutritional benets.
It has been used in traditional medicine since ancient times and is a recognized and
popular medicinal plant in Europe, where hawthorn extract as a cardiovascular tonic has
been known since at least the rst century . Hawthorn extract possesses vasodilator
properties. The positive effect of taking hawthorn extract on blood pressure reduction
has been conrmed in randomized clinical trials (Plotnikoff & Dusek, 2018). It is also
used in folk medicine as age- related diseases such as atherosclerosis and arthritis and
in treatment of upper respiratory infections including colds, bronchitis, and pneumonia
(Barros et al., 2010b) and as an antispasmodic agent in the treatment of asthma, diarrhoea, gall bladder disease, and uterine contractions, and as a sedative for the treatment
of insomnia (Wang et al., 2013). The hawthorn fruits are consumed as fresh or for
making jams, jellies, marmalade, candies, wine, or liquors.
Haws ripens in October. Moisture content in ripe hawthorn fruit is in the range
from 60 to 71% (Barros et al., 2010b; Ganhão et al., 2010; Ruiz- Rodríguez et al., 2014).
Carbohydrates were the most abundant macronutrients in Portugal ripe Crataegus
monogyna fruits (92 g/ 100 g DW), while the content of protein, fat, and ash were 4.0, 0.8,
and 3.2 g/ 100 g DW, respectively (Barros et al., 2010b). The contents of carbohydrates,
protein, fat, and ash in Spanish hawthorn berries were 90.3, 3.8, 1.8, and 4.1 g/ 100 g
DW, respectively (Ganhão et al., 2010). The content of total sugars was 41.0 g/ 100 g
DW, including glucose, 33.4; fructose, 7.2; trehalose, 0.3, and sucrose, 0.1 (Barros et al.,
2010b).
In fatty acid composition in ripe haws, total saturated fatty acids (SFA) represent
the major part and consisted of 60.5%, while monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) were
14.5%, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) were, 24.9, and the ratios of PUFA/ SFA
and ω- 6/ ω- 3 were 0.4 and 2.4, respectively. So, the fatty acid composition of hawthorn
berries is very close to current nutritional recommendations according to which the
ratio of PUFA/ SFA in human diets should be above 0.45, and the ω- 6/ ω- 3 ratio should
not exceed 4.0 (Stabnikova & Paredes- López, 2024). The tricosanoic acid (C23:0)
was predominant (32.8%), followed by linoleic acid (C18:2ω6c) (17.5%), oleic acid
(C18:1ω9c) (13.9%), and palmitic acid (C16:0) (13.7%).
Vitamins (tocopherols and ascorbic acid) and β- carotene contents were (mg/ 100 g
DW) 120, 220, and 55, respectively. α- tocopherol was the major compound (113 mg/
100 g DW) among the four isoforms of tocopherols presented in Portugal ripe Crataegus
monogyna fruits (Barros et al., 2010b).
Crataegus monogyna fruits harvested in Morocco were rich in magnesium (151 mg/
100 g DW), which plays a vital role in stress reduction (Radi et al., 2023). Turkish hawthorn contained such minerals, mg/ 100 g FW, as potassium, 1 6274; phosphorus, 132;
calcium, 126; magnesium, 94; iron 6.2; sodium, 5.7, and boron, 4.2 (Yalçın Dokumacı
et al., 2021).
Spain hawthorn fruit is characterized by high amounts of compounds possessing
antioxidant activity. It contained, per 100 g FW: phenolic acids, 467 mg GAE; avonols,
187 mg rutin eq; anthocyanins, 27 mg pelargonidin 3- glucoside; total phenolic
compounds, 681; vitamin C, 30.4 ascorbic acid (mainly dehydroascorbic acid, 28.3).
Wild Edible Plants, Berries, Mushrooms, and Seaweeds 21
Phenolic acids and avonols were the major phenolic compounds in C. monogyna. The
presence of gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, epicatechin, quercetin 3,4- diglucoside, quercetin 3,7,4- triglucoside, and cyanidin 3- galactoside in hawthorn fruits was conrmed
(Ruiz- Rodríguez et al., 2014). The antioxidant capacity of Crataegus monogyna (mmol
of TE/ 100 g FW), were 3.77 (ABTS assay), 1.54 (DPPH assay); 7.11 (FRAP assay),
and 820.55 mg of gallic acid eq/ 100 g FW (determined with Folin- Ciocalteu assay). For
Spanish hawthorn fruits the major phenolic compounds were avanols (procyanidins,
2307, and catechins, 1438 mg/ 100 g DW) (Ganhão et al., 2010), while others were
represented (mg/ 100 g DW) by avonols, 90; hydroxycinnamic acids, 81.0; anthocyanins,
2.9, and hydroxybenzoic acids, 1.9. The total phenol content was 3585 mg GAE/ 100 g
DW; total avonoid content was 577 mg quercetin equivalent/ 100 g DW, and antioxidant
activity was 93 mmol Fe
2+
/ 100 g DW (Alirezalu et al., 2020). Phenolic compounds in
Crataegus monogyna fruits consisted (mg/ 100 g DW) of chlorogenic acid, 40; vitexin,
18; hyperoside, 115; isoquercetin, 68; quercetin, 5. Hyperoside, chlorogenic acid, and
isoquercetin were found to be the most abundant phenolic compounds in the extracts
of Iran hawthorn fruits. The composition of phenolic compounds present in extracts of
Crataegus monogyna (Lithuania) was as follows, %: chlorogenic acid (2.8), hyperoside
(24.0), rutin (2.2), quercetin (1.0), vitexin- 2O- rhamnoside (2.4), epicatechin (36.7),
catechin (30.3), and procyanidin (0.6) (Bernatoniene et al., 2008). Color parameters
in C. monogyna fruits are reported as follows: a, redness/ greenness index, 33.95; b,
yellowness/ blueness index, 12.55; L, lightness/ darkness index, 7.37; C, Chroma index,
36.21; h◦, hue index, 20.18 (Alirezalu et al., 2020).
It was shown that the extract of hawthorn berries possessed antibacterial activity
against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter cloacae, and Shigella
dysenteria (Radi et al., 2023).
The addition of particles of minced freeze dried hawthorn with sizes less than
0.5 mm, 5%, to whole wheat our as a bakery ingredient resulted in an increase in
baking bread of dietary ber content by 73% and ash by 12%, while the contents of
protein and fat were not changed (Borczak et al., 2016) (Table 1.3). The content of total
polyphenols increased by 1.9 times (from 106.4 to 195.0 mg/ 100 g DW), antioxidant
activity by 2.6 times from 0.28 to 0.73 mmol TE/ 100 g DW (determined with ABTS
assay) or from 0.84 to 2.20 mmol Fe
2+
/ 100 g DW (determined with FRAP assay).
C. monogyna fruits grown in Chili had total phenolic content, 2830 mg GAE/ 100 g
DW; total avonoid content, 877 mg quercetin equivalents/ 100 g DW, and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), 8.6 mmol Trolox equivalents/ 100 g DW (Simirgiotis,
2013). The addition of hawthorn (C. monogyna) powder in biscuits (oatmeal, 61%;
almond our, 21%; coconut our, 9%; hawthorn powder, 9%) manufacturing resulted
in an increase of total phenol content from 80 to 435 mg GAE/ 100 g FW and antioxidant activity by 5 times, while panelists appreciated these biscuits with the high hedonic
score of 8.50 (Chis et al., 2009).
Application of extracts of different berries such as blackberry, bearberry, blueberry,
cloudberry, cranberry, blackcurrant, strawberry, and grape berries possessing antioxidant activity were recommended to be used for stabilizing meat products instead of
synthetic antioxidants (Lorenzo et al., 2018; Stabnikova et al., 2021). Extracts from
hawthorn fruits could also be used in the preparation of meat products to improve their
oxidative stability and quality. It was shown that extracts from hawthorn fruits being
22 Wild Edible Plants
used in the preparation of raw pork burger patties inhibited lipid oxidation during
12 days of storage at 2oC, which was more intense than that displayed by quercetin (230
mg/ kg of burger patty), the added is an equivalent quantity to the amount of phenolic
compounds in the extract (Ganhão et al., 2010). Addition of the hawthorn extract to
hamburger patties reduced their discoloration during storage, and this effect was more
signicant than that of quercetin.
The addition of an aqueous extract prepared from Crataegus monogyna fruit
powder, 1% (w/ w) in yoghurt, increased total polyphenol content (TPC) from 99 (control) to 434 mg GAE/ 100 g and radical scavenging activity (RSA) by 3.1 times, and after
28 days of storage, the TCA was 36 and 512 mg GEE/ 100 g in the control and enriched
yogurt, respectively, while the RSA of enriched yogurt was 4.1 times higher than that
of the control (Dabija et al., 2018). Application of diluted hawthorn juice with Brix
concentration of 10– 11% to produce water ker (lactic acid bacteria drinks) allowed a
functional probiotic beverage to be prepared with high phenolic content and antioxidant
activity as an alternative for consumers with lactose intolerance as a source of benecial microorganisms (Ozcelik et al., 2021). It was shown that the addition of Crataegus
monogyna fruit extracts improved functional, physicochemical, microbiological, and
sensory properties of yogurt and could be used for the development of health- promoting
yogurts (Herrera et al., 2023). Supplementation with water hawthorn extract increased
the antioxidant capacity of yogurt, decreased alpha- glucosidase activity, but over acceptability was reduced, leading to the need to control the amount of herbal product added.
1.5 PRODUCTION OF FUNCTIONAL
FOODS USING SEAWEEDS
Seaweeds refer to thousands of species of the macroscopic marine algae, a group of
photoautotrophic plant- like organisms containing chlorophyll that grow along seashores.
The most numerous and widespread are brown, red, and green algae, which differ by
the presence of specic pigments that determine their color. Brown algae belong to
phylum Ochrophyta, the class Phaeophyceae (about 2000 species), members of which
are multicellular organisms, which come in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. These
algae are predominantly marine, but some marine species can live in brackish water, and
only 1% are found in freshwater habitats (Wehr, 2015). They have a high growth rate,
and are found in colder waters along the coast. For example, laminaria grows 30 times
faster than land plants, can increase the length by more than 50 cm per day, and the largest species reach 50 m. The greenish- brown hue of these macroscopic seaweeds comes
from carotenoid pigment fucoxanthin, which is the most abundant pigment in brown
algae, and in some species, from brown tannins (Zhang et al., 2022). The most famous
representatives of edible brown algae include Kelp, Kombu, Arame, Lima, Hijiki, and
Wakame.
Red algae belong to phylum Rhodophyta (comes from the Greek: rhodon, ‘rose’
and phyton, ‘plant’) that includes about 7000 species. Red algae are widespread in
Wild Edible Plants, Berries, Mushrooms, and Seaweeds 23
marine habitats, but relatively rare in fresh waters (about 5%). It is mostly multicellular
marine algae but there are also microscopic forms. Their size usually varied from a
few centimeters to about one meter. Red algae have an extremely wide word distribution and can be found in a variety of climate zones from the tropics to the poles. They
have adapted to thrive at greater depths than other algae, usually typically below 30 m,
due to the presence of the pigments phycoerythrin and phycocyanin, which are able
to use blue rays, which have the greatest penetration depth, for photosynthesis. These
pigments determine the red color of algae. Red seaweed is primarily used as food and
for the production of two hydrocolloids: agar and carrageenan. The following types
of red algae are considered the most popular and are often used in cooking: porphyra
(nori), palmaria palmate, and gricilaria.
Green algae belong to phylum Chlorophyta (comes from the Greek: chloros, ‘green’
and phyton, ‘plant’) that includes about 1200 species. They may be unicellular or multicellular, wherein many unicellular species could form colonies and range in size from
microscopic (single- cell type) to a few meters for some marine species. They are mainly
habitants of freshwater, and only 10% of green algae grow in marine environments.
They grow in shallow water where light is abundant. Green algae have chlorophylls as
the major photosynthetic pigments, the presence of which determines their color. Green
algae are used as food, and among edible green algae the most famous are sea lettuce,
sea palm, and sea grapes.
Marine algae have been used as food since ancient times, mainly in Asian countries,
especially by coastal populations. Seaweed is used directly as food or as an ingredient in
various dishes, and as a sustainable raw material for the extraction of hydrocolloids such
as carrageenan, agar, and alginate, which are widely used in food production for gelling,
thickening, and emulsication (Bocanegra et al., 2009). Seaweed farming is essential
to meet the food needs of the world’s growing population, and currently, the industrial
seaweed aquaculture is continuously expanding.
Seaweeds have exceptional adaptability and an extremely high rate of growth. This
has led to the fact that over the past 20 years they have become recognized as one of
the most promising natural resources (Zhang et al., 2022). According to the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), 36 million tons (wet weight) of algae were produced
in 2020, of which 97 percent came mostly from marine aquaculture (FAO, 2022).
Meanwhile, just in 2012, total annual global production of seaweed (wet weight) was
estimated as 8 million tons (Kılınç et al., 2013). The share of Asian countries in seaweed
production accounts for 97.38% of total production, while 99% of seaweed is grown
articially (Zhang et al., 2022) (Table 1.4).
Seaweeds nd different commercial applications including food, agriculture, medicine, cosmetic, energy production, and wastewater treatment. Besides direct use as food,
it is used as an additive for feeding farm animals (poultry, broiler poultry, laying poultry,
ruminant, pig, rabbit, and deer); aquaculture (sh, shrimps, and oysters); as a fertilizer;
as raw material to produce hydrocolloids (agar, alginate, and carrageenan); as biomass
for biofuel production via fermentation, and even as an absorber to remove some heavy
metals from polluted water (Makkar et al., 2016; Wells et al., 2017). Seaweeds have
been used in traditional medicine since a long time ago, mainly in Asian countries, to
treat goiter, catarrh, nephritic diseases, and anthelmintic (Lomartire et al., 2021). They
have been part of the human diet from ancient times, as evidenced by archaeological
24 Wild Edible Plants
TABLE 1.4 Share of different countries in global aquaculture for algae production
in 2019
COUNTRY OR
CONTINENT
% FROM GLOBAL
PRODUCTION MAIN ALGAE PRODUCED
China 56.82 Japanese kelp (Laminaria japonica), Gracilaria
seaweeds (Gracilaria spp.), Nori nei (Porphyra
spp.)
Indonesia 28.80 Eucheuma seaweeds nei (Eucheuma spp.), Gracilaria
seaweeds (Gracilaria spp.)
South Korea 5.09 Japanese kelp (Laminaria japonica), Laver (Nori)
(Porphyra tenera), Wakame (Undaria pinnatifida)
Philippines 4.19 Elkhorn sea moss (Kappaphycus alvarezii)
North Korea 1.60 Japanese kelp (Laminaria japonica)
Japan 1.15 Laver (nori, Porphyra tenera), Wakame (Undaria
pinnatifida), Japanese kelp (Laminaria japonica)
Malaysia 0.53 Elkhorn sea moss (Kappaphycus alvarezii)
North America 1.36 95% is obtained from natural resources
Chile 0.30 Gracilaria, Spirulina maxima (99% from natural
riverbeds)
Mexico 0.02 Brown seaweeds (Phaeophyceae) and red seaweeds
Nei (Rhodophyceae) (99% from natural riverbeds)
Europa 0.80 96% of the seaweed is obtained from natural
resources
Africa 0.41 81% came from farming. Zanzibar accounts for
0.5% of the global aquaculture, mainly spiny
Eucheuma (Eucheuma denticulatum)
Oceania 0.05 99% from cultured brown seaweed
Source: Adapted from Zhang et al. (2022).
ndings in Chile, which demonstrated that the inhabitants of Monte Verde used seaweed
as food and medicine 14,000 years before now (Dillehay et al., 2008). Although there
are more than 10,000 species of seaweed, only 145 species are used as food. The most
popular seaweeds used as a food are Laminaria (Laminaria digitata), Wakame (Undaria
pinnatida), Black Sea brown alga (Cystoseira crinite), Kombu (Saccharina japonica),
Nori (Porphyra umbilicalis), and Sea oak (Fucus vesiculosus).
Seaweed contains important nutrients such as proteins, dietary ber, vitamins,
minerals, and low amounts of fat, which are predominantly mono and polyunsaturated
fatty acids. Among the ingredients useful for the preparation of functional food, edible
seaweeds contain antioxidants, polyphenols (phlorotannins), polysaccharides (alginate,
fucoidan), sterols, essential amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid,
C20:5, ω- 3; arachidonic, C20:4, ω- 6; docosahexaenoic, C22:6, ω- 3), carotenoids (fucoxanthin), and abundant minerals such as selenium and iodine. Incorporation of seaweeds
or seaweed extracts allows the production of low- fat food products with fewer calories
and saturated fatty acids but with increased health value and prolonged shelf- life of the
products (Afonso et al., 2019; Bocanegra et al., 2009; Peñalver et al., 2020; Roohinejad
Wild Edible Plants, Berries, Mushrooms, and Seaweeds 25
et al., 2017; Salido et al., 2024). These meat, sh, bakery, and other products would have
a therapeutic effect and could be recommended for consumption by people suffering
from a wide spectrum of disorders or diseases, including obesity, type- 2 diabetes, and
cardiovascular disease (Cardoso et al., 2015; Shannon & Abu- Ghannam, 2019).
The protein content in seaweed depends on species, the environment in which
they grow, and the season of harvesting. The highest protein content, g/ 100 g DW,
was found in red seaweed (8– 47), followed by green (9– 34), and brown (4– 24) algae
(Thiviya et al., 2022). Seaweed proteins contain all amino acids, and among essential
amino acids lysine, threonine, tryptophan, cysteine, and methionine are limiting ones.
However, the levels of essential amino acids are in response to requirements to dietary
proteins of the FAO/ WHO. The amino acid score of proteins is higher in red algae in
comparison with brown and green seaweeds, for example, red seaweed Porphyra spp.
and Undaria spp. had the amino acid score 91 and 100, respectively (Pangestuti & Kim,
2015). Glutamic acid and aspartic acid are the most abundant amino acids in most seaweed species (Lorenzo et al., 2017; Pangestuti & Kim, 2015). The content of lipids in
algae is low and varied, g/ 100 g DW: in red seaweed from 2.0 to 2.6; in brown algae
from 0.8 to 6.5, and in green algae from 1.6 to 7.9 (Peñalver et al., 2020). Both ω- 3 and
ω- 6 polyunsaturated fatty acids comprise a signicant part of the seaweed lipids and
extremely low ω- 6/ ω- 3 ratios found in some species is benecial for health and may
contribute to the prevention of different diseases (Rocha et al., 2021).
Seaweed contains high amounts of dietary ber, thus consumption of seaweed as a
way to cover the dietary ber deciency that is widespread in both European and Asian
countries. The recommended daily intakes by the US Food and Drug Administration of
dietary ber are about 25 g/ day, of which about 25 percent (about 6 g) should be soluble
ber (US Code of Federal Regulations, 2001), and are more than 25 g by World Health
Organization (2003). The content of dietary ber in seaweed ranges from 36 to 60 g/
100 g DW, while soluble dietary ber consists of about 55– 70 % (Peñalver et al., 2020).
Due to the low fat and high dietary ber contents seaweed is low in calories. Energy
value (kcal/ 100 g) of green algae Codium fragile was 324, red algae Gracilaria chilensis
was 331, and brown algae Macrocystis pyrifera was 360 kcal/ 100 g (Ortiz et al., 2009).
Seaweeds are characterized by a high mineral content (8– 40% of DW) (Peñalver
et al., 2020). Among the macrominerals, potassium is the most abundant element,
followed by sodium and calcium (Lorenzo et al., 2017). Despite the mineral composition of algae depending on many factors including species, environmental, and seasonal conditions, stage of harvesting, seaweeds can be a source of such trace elements
as iodine, selenium, iron, boron, zinc, and magnesium.
Seaweeds contain different vitamins, including water- soluble vitamins, thiamin,
riboavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, folic acid, cobalamin, vitamin C, and fat- soluble
vitamins A, D, and E. The presence of cobalamin (vitamin B12) makes seaweed especially important for vegetarian diets because it is not synthesized by plants (Croft
et al., 2005).
The content of polyphenols in red and green seaweeds is usually lower than 1%
DW, while in brown algae its content can reach up to 14% DW. Phlorotannins are the
major polyphenols of brown algae, which also contain avonoids and tannins (Ismail
et al., 2023; Peñalver et al., 2020). Bromophenols, avonoids, phenolics acids, phen olic terpenoids comprise a major part of phenolic compounds in green and red algae.
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