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Wild Edible Brown
Algae Wakame
12
as a Food
Supplement
Natalia Murlykina and Olena Stabnikova
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Among the long- term inuential trends in the development of the food industry, special
attention is paid to those that are of particular importance for the preservation of human
health and the environment (Herforth et al., 2019; Ivanov et al., 2021; Poole et al.,
2021). These also include food safety and risk management, the use of non- traditional
plant- based raw materials with bioactive compounds, the increased demand for plantbased proteins, the signicant popularity of functional foods, and the creation of food
products for the implementation of the green economy concept (Paredes- López et al.,
2022; Stabnikova et al., 2023).
Seaweeds (macroalgae) could be a promising alternative to animal proteins both
for human consumption and for feeding and can nd wide applications in functional
nutrition technology as a source of macro- , microelements, and biologically active
components. Moreover, the use of seaweeds in human nutrition allows reduction of risk
factors for non- communicable diseases, such as obesity, type- 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases (Cherry et al., 2019).
Among brown seaweeds, Undaria pinnatida L. commonly known as wakame
(Japanese name), an algae from family Alariaceae in the order Laminariales, is one of
the most important seaweeds in the world growing naturally in coastal areas (GarciaPerez et al., 2023; Li et al., 2023; Meretta et al., 2012). Undaria pinnatida has a con tinuous or lobed brown- green, thin (45– 60 cm long and 20– 40 cm wide) plate with tufts
of tiny hairs on the surface. It has rhizoids for attachment to the soil. Usually, the length
321DOI: 10.1201/9781003486794-12
322 Wild Edible Plants
can be from 1 to 3 m. In early summer, a folded border begins to grow along the edges
of the trunk, on which sporangia form. In August, sporangia ripens and slabs begin to
collapse. Wakame spreads through spores and expands its habitat by attaching itself to
the bottoms of ships or through ballast waters (Arijón et al., 2023; South et al., 2017).
The distribution area of Undaria pinnatida covers, rst of all, the coasts of Japan,
Korea, and China, thus, it is often called Asian algae (Epstein et al., 2018). However,
already in the second half of the 20th century, wakame were spotted in the coastal
waters of New Zealand, the USA, Argentina, Australia, and several European countries
(Cecere et al., 2000; Minchin & Nunn, 2014; Zhao et al., 2018), for which wakame is an
invasive non- native species (Castro et al., 2022; Epstein et al., 2018; Epstein & Smale,
2017; South et al., 2017).
The range of wakame applications is quite extensive and includes their use as a
source of protein- rich biomass for food (Li et al., 2023; Zhao et al., 2018) and animal
feeding (Arzoz et al., 2023). Wakame also has potential use in pharmaceutical biotechnology, as an ingredient in cosmetics and agrochemicals, and as a raw material for the
production of renewable bioenergy (Garcia- Perez et al., 2023).
12.2 WAKAME AS A SOURCE OF VALUABLE
NUTRIENTS AND BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS
The nutritional composition of brown algae varies between species, depends on the
place of growing and season of algae harvesting (Balbas et al., 2015; Harnedy &
FitzGerald, 2011; Li et al., 2023; Madden et al., 2012). The chemical composition of
Undaria pinnatida is represented by a complex of various nitrogen- containing and
carbohydrate- like substances, carbohydrates, and coloring pigments (Cherry et al.,
2019; Garcia- Perez et al., 2023; Kraan, 2013). Wakame biomass contains all essential
amino acids, most of which are in a free, easily digestible form (Zhou et al., 2015).
Of the polysaccharides, polyoses predominate, and methylpentosans are also present,
which are resistant to the action of digestive enzymes, so they are physiologically
active and behave in the body like dietary bers. Seaweed ber differs from the ber
of terrestial plants by its lower cellulose content and higher content of pentosans and
methylpentosans (Zhao et al., 2018). In addition, wakame can contain a large amount
(up to 30% of dry weight) of mannitol alcohol, which is the dominant end product of
brown algae photosynthesis (Balbas et al., 2015). At the same time, mannitol is twice as
sweet as sucrose, has low digestibility and does not cause hyperglycemia, so it can be
used in the diet of diabetics.
Wakame contains amino acids, thiamine, niacin, riboavin, pantothenic acid, folic
acid, vitamins A, E, K, C, magnesium, phosphorus, calcium, ferrum, copper, and iodine
(Cherry et al., 2019). Besides vitamins and minerals, wakame is a rich source of polyunsaturated eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5, ω- 3), and its concentration could consist of up
to 50% of total fatty acid content. Meanwhile, eicosapentaenoic acid improves the level
of cholesterol, reduces the risk of blood clots and blood pressure, and helps to decrease
Wild Edible Brown Algae Wakame as a Food Supplement 323
the cardiovascular risk (Nassar et al., 2023; Yokoyama et al., 2022). Composition of
fatty acids and ω- 6/ ω- 3 ratio in Undaria pinnatida is benecial for health. High ω- 6/ ω-
3 ratio (> 4) is associated with increased risk of obesity (Stabnikova & Paredes- López,
2024), while it was just 0.5 for Undaria pinnatida in the study of Dawczynski et al.
(2007) and 0.49 in the study of van Ginneken et al. (2011). Algae Undaria pinnatida
contain fucoxanthin, a major carotenoid in brown seaweeds, which possess different
bioactive activities, such as antidiabetic, antioxidant, antiobesity, anti- inammatory,
and anticancer (Ahmed et al., 2022; Sasaki et al., 2024; Sugimura et al., 2012; Tocaciu
et al., 2018; Wan- Loy & Siew- Moi, 2016).
Among phenolic compounds, Undaria pinnatida contain 2,5- dihydroxybenzoic
acid (also known as gentisic acid) as the major component, which is known by its
antimicrobial, anticancer, antiaging, antimutagenic, and anti- inammatory properties
(Madureira et al., 2016; Zaharudin et al., 2018). Table 12.1 shows the chemical com position of edible seaweed Undaria pinnatida from different regions, commercially
exploited in food.
Undaria pinnatida is rich in nutrients and its addition to food products can
increase their nutritional value. However, an important aspect in consumer evaluation of
food is its aroma, which is caused by the presence of certain volatile compounds (Balbas
et al., 2015; Li et al., 2023). Meanwhile, about 140 volatile compounds were identi ed in Undaria pinnatida, such as aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, hydrocarbons, esters,
acids, sulfur- containing substances, and furans (López- Pérez et al., 2017). Alcohols in
wakame consisted of the main group of volitale compounds, followed by hydrocarbons
and aldehydes (Ferraces- Casais et al., 2013).
Proteins. In addressing the problem of improving food security, seaweeds as a possible
source of protein have attracted considerable attention (Dumay & Morançais, 2016;
Harnedy & FitzGerald, 2011; Zhou et al., 2015). Since seaweeds contain a signicant
amount of non- protein nitrogen compounds, coefcients from 3.57 to 5.72 (depending
on the algae species) are used to convert the total amount of nitrogen to protein instead
of the traditional 6.25 (Lourenco et al., 2002). The protein content in brown algae
Undaria pinnatida can reach up to 24% (Dumay & Morançais, 2016).
Sunlight, water temperature, concentration of nitrogenous nutrients, salinity, and
pH of the surrounding environment affect the protein content in seaweeds (Dumay &
Morançais, 2016; Zhou et al., 2015). Zhou et al. (2015) showed that the amino acid
composition of Undaria pinnatida depended on the season of harvesting and part
(blade and sporophyll) of plant (Table 12.2).
The value of protein is determined by its amino acid composition, which is especially important for ensuring the consumption of the required amount of essential amino
acids (Cofrades et al., 2010; Taboada et al., 2013). The nutritional value of algae protein
also depends on its digestibility in the gastrointestinal tract (Goñi et al., 2002). It was
determined that the digestibility of Undaria pinnatida protein in rodents was 86.1%,
and in humans it was 70.0%, which is close to the digestibility of protein from terrestrial
plants (Beasley et al., 2013; Černá, 2011).
With regard to in vivo digestibility, seaweed protein is considered to be bioavailable, however, interactions between the protein and polysaccharides present in the algal
biomass may inhibit the proteolysis of algae proteins and decrease of free amino acid
324 Wild Edible Plants
TABLE 12.1 Nutrient composition of selected edible seaweed Undaria pinnatifida,
g/ 100 g DW
DIETARY
COUNTRY PROTEIN ASH
Spain (April) 16.5– 19.5 31.0– 31.5 – – 1.05 (Sánchez-
FIBER
CARBO-
HIDRATE LIPID REFERENCE
Machado
Spain 12 37 41 50 <1.5 (Cofrades
Ireland 12– 23 26– 40 16– 51 45– 51 1.05– 4.5 (Pereira, 2011)
et al., 2004)
et al., 2010)
Spain 18.00 – – – 1.05 (Cherry et al.,
2019)
New Zealand 14.21 – – 45.08 3.13 (Cherry et al.,
2019)
New Zealand 19.66 – – 50.4 3.30 (Cherry et al.,
Spain
16.49 27.4 – 52.53 1.24 (Cassani et al.,
(December)
European
19.7 9.2 – 50.4 3.3 (Garcia- Perez
algae
sector
Ireland 12– 23 26.0– 41.2 8.81– 46.00 30.1– 51.0 1.5– 10.1 (Pereira,
2019)
2022)
et al., 2023)
2023a)
– data not provided
release (Bleakley & Hayes, 2017). The use of xylanase and cellulase enzymes to treat
polysaccharides of the red algae Palmaria palmata improved the bioavailability of its
protein by 1.7 and 3 times, respectively. This method can be used to obtain protein
extracts from seaweeds to increase the yield of protein and amino acids for possible
use in the production of food, feed additives, and nutraceuticals (Beasley et al., 2013;
Černá, 2011). A signicant increase in protein yield from the biomass of brown algae
Ascophyllum nodosum was achieved by its complex treatment with a mixture of various
enzymes such as proteases, cellulases, amylases, and glucanases (Kadam et al., 2017).
The biological activity of peptides extracted from Undaria pinnatida is associated with
antihypertensive, antioxidant, antidiabetic effects, as well as cardioprotective effects
due to lowering blood pressure. It has also been suggested to use seaweed peptides,
which have antioxidant properties, as food preservatives (Jiménez- Escrig et al., 2011;
Sato et al., 2002).
Mycosporine- like amino acids such as asterin, mycosporine- glycine, and shinorin,
are known as photoprotectors due to the ability to absorb ultraviolet radiation, were
identied in Undaria pinnatida (Arzoz et al., 2023). Prawns fed diets supplemented
with such compounds from Undaria pinnatida exhibited high photoprotective capacity.
It is believed that protein extracts from seaweeds have the potential as an alternative
protein source, and by 2054 their production will increase to 56.56 million tons per year
accounting for 5.94% of the global protein demand (Probst et al., 2015).
TABLE 12.2 Amino acid composition in Undaria pinnatifia, g/ 100 g DW
AMINO ACID
UNDARIA
PINNATIFIDA
(BLADE)
UNDARIA
a1
PINNATIFI DA
(BLADE)
UNDARIA
a2
PINNATIFIDA
(SPOROPHYLL)
UNDARIA
a1
PINNATIFIDA
(SPOROPHYLL)
a2
UNDARIA
PINNATIFIDA
UNDARIA
b
PINNATIFIDA
newgenrtpdf
c
Essential:
Histidine 0.66 0.49 0.80 0.40 0.24 0.17
Isoleucine 0.33 0.34 0.53 0.29 0.53 0.51
Leucine 0.67 0.56 1.04 0.43 1.00 0.86
Lysine 0.48 0.53 0.79 0.41 0.65 0.40
Methionine 0.30 0.25 0.31 0.30 0.35 0.01
Phenylalanine 0.46 0.33 0.75 0.32 0.68 0.48
Threonine 0.52 0.24 0.45 0.25 0.60 0.29
Trpyptophan – – – – – –
Valine 0.42 0.53 0.79 0.43 0.73 0.58
Non- essential:
Aspartic acid 2.01 0.70 1.04 0.77 1.22 0.76
Glutamic acid 0.75 0.82 1.38 1.09 1.35 0.12
Alanine 0.66 0.43 1.78 0.62 0.86 0.98
Arginine 0.73 0.27 0.55 0.25 0.61 0.88
Cysteine – – – 0.08 0.03
Glycine 2.11 0.41 0.85 0.39 0.64 0.66
Proline – – – 0.48 0.44
Tyrosine 0.37 0.30 0.59 0.29 0.55 0.21
Serine 0.72 0.33 0.71 0.32 0.62 0.42
Total content of essential amino acids 3.84 3.27 5.46 2.83 4.78 3.30
Total content of amino acids 11.19 6.53 12.36 6.56 11.19 7.80
a
The values for Undaria pinnatifida (Zhou et al., 2015); harvested in 1 – July; 2 – September.
b
The values for Undaria pinnatifida (Cofrades et al., 2010).
c
The values for Undaria pinnatifida (Taboada et al., 2013).
Wild Edible Brown Algae Wakame as a Food Supplement 325
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