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326 Wild Edible Plants
Dietary ber. Seaweeds are rich in dietary ber. It was shown that wakame has very
similar total ber content in comparison with terrestrial vegetables and fruits (MacArtain
et al., 2007). Thus, total ber content, g/ 100 g wet weight, in Undaria pinnatida was
3.4 (soluble, 2.9, and insoluble, 0.5), compare to 2.8 in prunes, 2.9 in cabbage, 2.6 in
carrots, 2.0 in apples, 3.1 in bannanas, and 3.8 in brown rice. The recommended amount
of dietary ber is 24 g per day, so, consumption of 100 g of wet wakame covers 11.6%
of a person’s daily ber needs.
Seaweeds have in their composition a variety of ber components. Polysaccharides
alginate, laminarin, fucoidan are present in brown algae; agar, carrageenan, porphyran
and xylan in red algae; ulvan, xylan, cellulose in green algae (Hernández- Carmona
et al., 2013; Mensah et al., 2023; Zhao et al., 2018).
The biomass of Undaria pinnatida is characterized by a high content of alginates
and a relatively small amount of fucoidans. Alginates present in wakame and other
brown seaweeds are potent α- amylase inhibitors, which have the ability to slow the
release of glucose from starches and thereby alleviate postprandial hyperglycemia
(Zaharudin et al., 2018).
Seaweeds are potentially benecial for gut health because they help bind and retain
water, increase stool volume, and decrease transit time (MacArtain et al., 2007). This
primary benecial effect of alginates on the digestive system is an important factor in the
prevention of colon cancer. Alginates have the ability to bind and remove radionuclides
and heavy metal ions from the body, which determines their use in medicine as detoxifying agents and radioprotectors.
Fucoidan, a sulfated water- soluble polysaccharide, was rst isolated by Keelin in
1913 from Undaria pinnatida (Zhao et al., 2018). It can be found in the cell wall
of brown seaweeds (Mensah et al., 2023; Vijay Sankar et al., 2023). Fucoidan from
Undaria pinnatida is sulfated galactofucan (Pereira, 2023b), although fucoidan present in most other brown seaweeds consists of sulfated fucose (Zhao et al., 2018).
Monosaccharides fucose, xylose, galactose, glucose, rhamnose, and mannose were
found in the composition of Undaria pinnatida fucoidan. Fucose, galactose, and mannose are the most abundant monosaccharides (Pereira, 2023b), but uronic acid and
sulfate were also included (Zhao et al., 2018). Fucoidan has been shown to have a
wide range of biological activities, including antioxidant, antiglycemic, and antimicrobial properties (Koh et al., 2019; Murray et al., 2018; Pereira, 2023b; Vijay Sankar
et al., 2023).
The potential functional properties of dietary bers are due to their viscous, solubility, water- binding, and water- holding capacities (MacArtain et al., 2007; Poutanen
et al., 2017). Fiber increases satiety and promotes weight loss; improves gastric
emptying, improves glycemic control; increases bowel movement frequency; increases
bile acid excretion, which leads to a decrease in LDL (low- density lipoprotein cholesterol) levels in the blood (Clark & Slavin, 2013). Dietary ber components, due to their
fermentation by the microbiota of the colon, favorably change the microbial composition of the intestine and increase the production of volatile fatty acids (acetic, propionic,
and butyric). Changes in the composition of microbiota and its metabolites led to the
strengthening of the gastrointestinal, locomotor, immune system, cardiometabolic and
mental state (Gibson et al., 2017).
Wild Edible Brown Algae Wakame as a Food Supplement 327
The potential of seaweed as a functional feed ingredient is becoming important for
aquatic animals (Díaz et al., 2017). Water- soluble extracts of Undaria pinnatida with
the bioactive fraction of polysaccharides were used as a feed supplement for prawn
Artemesia longinaris. These extracts showed good experimental results in antioxidant
capacity analysis due to the high concentration of fucoidan. A signicant improvement
in growth with performance was also noted (Díaz et al., 2017).
Fucoidan has been shown to have anticoagulant properties (Irhimeh et al., 2009;
Tocaciu et al., 2018; Zhao et al., 2018), and can be considered as a catalyst for
thrombin inhibition. The anticoagulant properties of fucoidan may nd application in
pharmaceuticals, but the use of fucoidan as a food ingredient requires establishing safe
doses, especially for people receiving anticoagulant therapy (Duttaroy, 2021; Irhimeh
et al., 2009; Zhao et al., 2018).
The diverse biological activities of fucoidan extracted from Undaria pinnatida,
including antilung carcinoma, anticolon adenocarcinoma, antibreast cancer,
antimelanoma, antioxidant, anticoagulant, antibacterial, anti- inammation, and
antiallergy effects, were reported (Duttaroy, 2021; Kim et al., 2012; Schleder et al., 2018;
Zhao et al., 2018). Thus, fucoidan may nd application in the development of new drugs
with various therapeutic properties (Guo et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2022).
At the same time, it is of interest as a possible functional ingredient of new food products.
Lipids. The composition, content, and qualitative indicators of Undaria pinnatida
lipids are actively researched and often discussed in publications (Boulom et al., 2014;
Cherry et al., 2019; Garcia- Perez et al., 2023; Rodrigues et al., 2015). The study (van
Ginneken et al., 2011) showed the results of determining the content and composition
of lipids in the various species of benthic seaweed from the North Atlantic and tropical
seas. Seaweeds from the colder regions of the Atlantic exhibited the highest content
of acyl lipids, 3.7– 4.5 g/ 100 g DW; tropical seaweeds had the lowest concentration,
approximately 1.0 g/ 100 g DW. Undaria pinnatida, collected in the Irish region of the
Atlantic Ocean had an intermediate total lipid content of 1.8 g/ 100 g DW.
The lipid content in brown seaweed was in the range of 0.3 to 4.5% DW (Salehi
et al., 2019), and the contents of lipids in Undaria pinnatida harvested in different
countries were between 1.05 and 4.5 g/ 100 g DW (Pereira, 2011). The lipid content of
the Spanish seaweed Undaria pinnatida was less than 1.5 g/ 100 g DW (Cofrades et al.,
2010). It varied from 1.7 to 6.3 g/ 100 g DW in wakame collected in Portugal (Rodrigues
et al., 2015). A recent review showed a wider range of lipid content from 1.5 to 10.1 g/
100 g DW (Pereira, 2023a).
Different parts of Undaria pinnatida contain different amounts of fat. Thus,
sporophyll contained more total fat than the blade and midrib. The total lipid content in
sporophyll was 5.83 g/ 100 g DW, while the blade and midrib contained total lipids 2.25
and 1.77 g/ 100 g DW, respectively (Boulom et al., 2014). Previous studies have reported
total lipid content in Undaria pinnatida to be 1.05 g/ 100 g DW (Sánchez- Machado
et al., 2004) and 4.5 g/ 100 g DW in the blade. The amount of total lipid in Undaria
pinnatida depends on the growing season (Boulom et al., 2014). Total lipids for blade
and sporophyll increased during the growing season from July to August. Their maximum contents in the blade and sporophyll were 3.55 and 5.13 g/ 100 g DW, respectively.
328 Wild Edible Plants
A signicant decrease was noted in September. The total lipid content in the blade and
sporophyll increased again in December and was 3.4 and 5.04 g/ 100 g DW, respectively
(Boulom et al., 2014). So, the lipid content in seaweed tends to be highest in winter and
lowest in summer (Boulom et al., 2014; Cassani et al., 2022; Cherry et al., 2019). The
composition of fatty acids also varies depending on the season (Table 12.3).
The content of saturated fatty acids (SFAs), monounsaturated and polyunsaturated
fatty acids (PUFAs) of the total amount of fatty acids Undaria pinnatida was 20.39%,
19.16%, and 69.11%, respectively. Wakame has the highest ratio of PUFAs:SFAs, 3.39,
among known seaweeds (Cherry et al., 2019; Sánchez- Machado et al., 2004), mean while, foods with a high ratio of PUFA to SFA may be useful to maintain blood LDL- C
levels within normal limits (Cherry et al., 2019). As was previously noted, wakame is a
good source of polyunsaturated fatty acids with an ω- 6:ω- 3 ratio of about 1.0 (Boulom
et al., 2014; Cassani et al., 2022; van Ginneken et al., 2011). The PUFAs of Undaria
pinnatida included a high content of ω- 6 arachidonic acid (C20:4), 16%, and ω- 3
eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5), 16%, a relatively high content of ω- 3 stearidonic acid
(C18:4), 12%, lower content of ω- 3 α- linolenic acid (C18:3), 7%, and ω- 6 linoleic
acid (C18:2), 4%, and trace amounts of ω- 3 docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6) from the
total amount of fatty acids (van Ginneken et al., 2011). The results (Cassani et al.,
2022) conrmed that Undaria pinnatida is a promising source of ω- 3 fatty acids. The
presence of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in the diet is important for the
proper development of the nervous system and the prevention of cardiovascular diseases
(van Ginneken et al., 2011). The seaweeds are low in lipids, but they can be sustainable sources of extractable PUFAs. These extractable PUFAs could nd applications as
dietary supplements or nutraceuticals.
Polyphenols. Polyphenols including phlorotannins, avonoids, and phenolic acids
occupy an important place among the bioactive compounds of Undaria pinnatida and
contribute signicantly to the antioxidant and health- promoting properties of wakame.
Polyphenols of brown algae are a component of cell wall. Content of polyphenols in
Undaria pinnatida consisted 4.46 gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/ 100 g DW (Cofrades
et al., 2010; Cotas, 2023). Phlorotannins make up a signicant portion of the total poly phenolic content. It is known to possess several bioactivities including antioxidant, antiinammatory, and antimicrobial, and phlorotannins- enriched extract was recommended
for wound healing (Ferreira et al., 2021; Pedro et al., 2021; Wijesekara et al., 2011;
Zheng et al., 2022). Brown algae Ecklonia cava phlorotannins is approved as a new
resource food and can be used in dietary supplements (Commission Implementing
Regulation (EU) 2018/ 460).
Flavonoids are a diverse group of polyphenolic compounds that contribute to the
antioxidant capacity of Undaria pinnatida (Pedro et al., 2021; Zheng et al., 2022).
Although they are present in smaller quantities compared to phlorotannins, they still
play an important role in the overall bioactivity of the seaweeds. The major avonoids
identied in Undaria pinnatida included avonols, such as catechol, morin, quercitrin
(quercetin o- glycoside), rutin (quercetin 3- rhamnoglucoside), and avanols, such as
epigallocatechingallate, epicatechin, and catechin gallate (Ferdous & Balia Yusof,
2021; Machu et al., 2015; Stark et al., 2003). A high amount of epigallocatechin- gallate,
7.5 µg/ g, was detected in wakame (Ferdous & Yusof, 2021). The presence of avonoids
TABLE 12.3 Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content in Undaria pinnatifia lipids
TYPE OF FATTY ACID, % OF TOTAL FATTY ACIDS CONTENT
COUNTRY (DATA OF
HARVEST)
TOTAL, G/ 100
G DW
MONOSATURATED PUFAS Ω- 6 PUFAS Ω- 3 PUFAS Ω- 6/ Ω- 3
REFERENCESATURATED
Spain (April) 1.05 20.39 10.50 69.11 22.10 44.70 0.49 (Sánchez- Machado
et al., 2004)
Spain <1.5 39.0 14.66 46.34 9.82 36.52 0.27 (Cofrades et al., 2010)
Ireland (September–
October)
New Zealand
1.45 23.34 19.16 56.59 21.00 35.00 0.60 (van Ginneken et al.,
2011)
4.04 24.97 12.40 62.57 25.81 36.54 0.71 (Boulom et al., 2014)
(July– December)
New Zealand
3.40 32.26 15.04 52.78 23.81 29.01 0.82 (Boulom et al., 2014)
(September Blade)
New Zealand
1.77 33.10 13.89 52.78 31.59 21.27 1.49 (Boulom et al., 2014)
(September Midrib)
New Zealand
5.13 43.90 22.56 33.33 23.39 10.09 2.32 (Boulom et al., 2014)
(September
Sporophyll)
Spain( December) 1.24 31.70 23.38 44.92 20.19 24.72 0.82 (Cassani et al., 2022)
Wild Edible Brown Algae Wakame as a Food Supplement 329
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330 Wild Edible Plants
and related compounds in walkame, g/ g DW: rutin, 457; caffeic acid, 53.6; catechol,
1830; quercetin o- glycoside, 202; morin, 1020 (Stark et al., 2003), epigallocatechin,
4.8, and 4- hydroxybenzoic acid, 1.9 (Machu et al., 2015) were determined.
Flavonoids and related compounds were known to have the activity to affect lipid
and DNA oxidation (Cofrades et al., 2010; Jimenez- Lopez et al., 2021; Stark et al.,
2003). The epigallocatechingallate is characterized by anticancer, antioxidant, anti-
microbial, and antiallergic activity. Quercetin is known for its potent antioxidant and
anti- inammatory effects. This avonoid is associated with cardiovascular protection
and neuroprotection. A glycoside of quercetin, rutin, has been linked to vascular health
benets (Ferdous & Yusof, 2021).
Phenolic acids are another important class of phenols compound in Undaria
pinnatida, known for their antimicrobial and anti- inammatory properties (Ferreira
et al., 2021; Jimenez- Lopez et al., 2021; Montero et al., 2023). These compounds are
typically present in lower concentrations but contribute signicantly to the overall health
benets of the seaweed. The major phenolic acids identied in Undaria pinnatida
included gallic acid, caffeic acid, gentisic acid, 4- hydroxybenzoic acid, and p- coumaric
acid (Klejdus et al., 2017; Stark, 2003; Zaharudin et al., 2018).
Gallic acid is a strong antioxidant with potential anticancer properties (Jang et al.,
2024; Wang et al., 2018). In Undaria pinnatida, gallic acid concentrations have been
found to be around 0.02 to 0.04 mg/ g DW. Caffeic acid, known for its anti- inammatory
and antimicrobial activities, present in wakame at concentrations of approximately 53.6
g/ g (Klejdus et al., 2017; Stark, 2003). p- coumaric acid has been linked to cardiovas cular protection (Ferreira et al., 2021; Stark, 2003).
A signicant content of phenolic compounds, 30.85 mg GAE/ g, was found
in wakame extract. The extract is rich in protocatechuic acid and syringic acid, and
scavenges 2,2- diphenyl- 1- picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and hydroxyl free radical at IC50
values of extract were 0.985 and 0.977 mg/ ml, respectively (Wang et al., 2018). Major
phenolic acids and avonoids found in wakame extracts, were, mg/ g extract: gallic
acid, 4.3; 2,5- dihydroxybenzoic acid, 17.4; epicatechin, 5.8, and epigallocatechin, 7.1
(Zaharudin et al., 2018).
Thus, the polyphenolic compounds in Undaria pinnatida including phlorotannins,
avonoids, and phenolic acids are present in signicant quantities and contribute to
the seaweed strong antioxidant properties. These compounds, identied at various
concentrations, provide a wide range of health benets, making Undaria pinnatida a
valuable source of natural bioactive compounds with potential applications in functional
foods and nutraceuticals.
Fucoxanthin. Fucoxanthin, the major carotenoid of edible brown seaweeds, is an
orange- colored pigment, belonging to the xanthophylls (Lourenço- Lopes et al., 2021).
The fucoxanthin content in seaweeds varies signicantly across species, with reported
concentrations ranging from 0.022 to 3.7 mg/ g DW (Holdt & Kraan, 2011; Nunes et al.,
2019). Additionally, fucoxanthin levels can uctuate considerably depending on the
season and the seaweed life cycle. Fucoxanthin concentration in seaweeds increases
from winter to spring during the algae mature phase and decreases in the summer
during the senescence phase (Heavisides et al., 2018). The content of fucoxanthin in
Undaria pinnatida from New Zealand was, mg/ g DW: 2.08 (July), 1.77 (August), and
Wild Edible Brown Algae Wakame as a Food Supplement 331
2.04 (September), and its content in the sporophyll was lower than in the blade for all
months. DPPH (2,2- diphenyl- 1- picrylhydrazyl free radical) radical scavenging assay
varied insignicantly ranging between 32.09% (July) and 39.64% (September) (Fung
et al., 2013).
It should be noted that fucoxanthin easily degrades, and degradation can be caused
by various external factors such as high temperature, high pressure, light, acid environment, and the presence of oxygen. Content of fucoxanthin in wakame could signicantly
decrease after drying, and there was an average 51.8% reduction in the fucoxanthin
content of dried Undaria pinnatida (oven drying for 24 h at 60 oC) compared with
the freeze dried biomass (Fung et al., 2013). These changes limit the use of pure fucoxanthin in the manufacture of functional foods, but the stability of fucoxanthin can be
increased by the presence of other organic compounds such as polyphenols (Pereira,
2023a).
Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that fucoxanthin exhibits signi-
cant health- promoting effects, primarily due to its antioxidant properties (Wang et al.,
2018). In addition to its potent antioxidant activity, fucoxanthin has been reported to
possess various bioactivities, including antiobesity, antidiabetic, anti- inammatory,
antimalarial, antiaging, and antitumor effects, as well as protective effects on the liver,
brain, bones, skin, and eyes (Holdt & Kraan, 2011). Based on the health benets of
fucoxanthin, it is being explored as an ingredient in functional foods and as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of obesity, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and wrinkle
formation (Lorbeer et al., 2013; Sicińska et al., 2015).
Vitamins. Seaweeds live in aquatic environments, often exposed to long periods of direct
sunlight. This promotes the synthesis and accumulation of a variety of antioxidants,
including vitamins and protective pigments. As a result, seaweeds are characterized by
relatively high content of both water- and fat- soluble vitamins, and their content even
is much higher than in the terrestial plants. The vitamin contents can vary signicantly,
depending on the species, environmental conditions, and harvesting methods (Koseki
et al., 2023; Wells et al., 2017).
The following vitamins were determined in wakame, mg/ 100 g DW: β- carotene,
1.30 (retinol equivalent, 0.217); tiamin (B1), 0.30; riboavin (B2), 1.35; pyridoxine
(B6), 0.18; niacin (B3), 2.56 (Kolb et al., 2004); tocopherol (E) <0.001; B2, 1.32
(Martinez & Becherucci, 2022); µg/ 100 g DW: cobalamin (B12), 0.5 (Koseki et al.,
2023). The content of vitamin C in wild fresh Undaria pinnatida consisted of 0.118
mg/ 100 g DW, but after boiling for 20 min it reduced to be below the detection limit
(Amorim et al., 2012).
The presence of vitamin B12 in wakame makes it a valuable food for vegetarians
given the deciency of cobalamin in plant materials, although the bioavailability of
B12 from seaweed is controversial (Koseki et al., 2023). The high vitamin content
of Undaria pinnatida makes it a valuable raw material for use in the food industry
(Škrovánková, 2011).
Minerals. An advantage of seaweeds is that they can contain minerals that are often
missing in biomass of freshwater algae and terrestrial crops grown in mineral- poor soils
(Pereira, 2023a). Seaweeds have higher macromineral content than vegetable crops
332 Wild Edible Plants
(Cassani et al., 2022; Kolb et al., 2004). The content of minerals in Undaria pinnatida
is shown in Table 12.4.
Among the macrominerals, sodium and potassium were found to be the most
abundant in wakame (Cofrades et al., 2010). Although high sodium levels are often
associated with high blood pressure, the sodium in seaweed must be considered
alongside with other minerals such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium to create
a balanced nutritional prole. For example, seaweed is rich in potassium, which
in high doses provides protection against high blood pressure and cardiovascular
risks (Pereira, 2023a). The sodium- to- potassium ratio in wakame is low, 0.48, which
helps to reduce uid retention and control high blood pressure without disturbing
the potassium balance (Pereira, 2023a; Rodrigues et al., 2015; Rupérez, 2002). In
addition, seaweed ber can bind sodium, leading to its excretion in the feces, which
further explains the benecial effects of seaweed consumption on blood pressure
(Pereira, 2023a)
Content of calcium in wakame is eight times more in comparison with milk. The
recommended daily calcium intake for adults is between 1000 to 1300 mg (Institute of
Medicine, 1997), while 100 g of dry wakame contains from 648 to 1380 mg of calcium
(Cofrades et al., 2010). This makes wakame an excellent source of calcium for children,
those at risk of osteoporosis, and pre- and post- menopausal women.
Wakame could be considered as an important source of magnesium, the content of
which ranges from 411 to 1181 mg/ 100 g DW (Table 12.4). The recommended daily
allowance (RDA) for magnesium for women aged 19– 70 is 310– 320 mg/ day and men
aged 19– 70 is 400– 420 mg/ day. So, consumption of just 4 g of dried wakame covers
about 10% of magnesium RDA, while many people do not have enough of this mineral
in their diet (Cofrades et al., 2010).
Algae Undaria pinnatida is also rich in trace minerals such as iron, zinc, and
manganese (Table 12.4). Iron deciency is considered the leading cause of anemia,
from which more than 2000 million people are suffering in the world (World Health
Organization, 2008). The daily requirement of the human body is on average 15– 17 mg/
day of total iron (Tsykhanovska et al., 2023), meanwhile, wakame contains from 7.6
to 13.3 mg/ 100 g DW (Table 12.4). Zinc RDA for adults is 8 mg/ day for women and
11 mg/ day for men (Institute of Medicine, 2001), but dry wakame contains from 0.85
to 13.3 mg/ 100 g. Magnesium RDA for women is 1.8 mg/ day and for men 2.3 mg/ day
(Institute of Medicine, 2001), while in wakame the content of magnesium consists of
from 0.3 to 1.0 mg/ 100 g DW.
Copper is a cofactor for several enzymes and is necessary for the synthesis of
hemoglobin. Copper and zinc are considered essential trace elements for humans, but
both can be toxic when taken in excess of the allowed amounts.
Seaweed is traditionally considered the main source of organic iodine. Wakame
contains iodine, which is required for optimal thyroid function, from 15.4 to 40.0 mg/ 100
g DW (Table 12.4), while the recommended daily dose for adults is 0.150 mg (Institute
of Medicine, 2001). So, 380– 970 mg of wakame contains a daily dose of iodine. The
toxic dose of iodine for adults is over 2000 g per day. Therefore, when using wakame
in the preparation of functional foods, the iodine content of the nal product should be
monitored. However, it is difcult to assess the iodine content in a nished product,
since iodine dissolves in water during cooking and can evaporate when stored under
TABLE 12.4 Mineral composition of Undaria pinnatifida, mg/ 100 g DW
COUNTRY NA K NA/ K CA MG FE ZN MN CU I P SE REFERENCE
Spain 7064 8699 0.81 931 1181 7. 6 1.74 0.87 – – – – (Rupérez, 2002)
France 4675 8125 0.58 1170 820 40.8 0.30 – 2.00 40.0 – – (MacArtain et al., 2007)
Spain 5163 10700 0.48 925 833 13.3 6.08 0.85 – – 0.06 <0.05 (Cofrades et al., 2010)
New Zealand
3610 7120 0.51 1280 – 13.3 2.29 1.01 0.68 17.1 479 0.007 (Smith et al., 2010)
April– September
Argentina 825 1183 0.70 794 491 2.9 1.55 – 1.45 36.0 266 – (Martinez & Becherucci, 2022)
Spain December – 6545 – 649 411 6.2 2.80 0.81 <0.2 15.4 660 <0.48 (Cassani et al., 2022)
Japan 6494 5691 1.14 950 405 1.5 0.33 0.19 26.0 450 ˂0.05 (Kolb et al., 2004)
– data not provided.
Wild Edible Brown Algae Wakame as a Food Supplement 333
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334 Wild Edible Plants
humid conditions (MacArtain et al., 2007; Teas et al., 2004). It was shown that losses
of iodine in meat products (steamed and fried cutlets, meat balls, quenelles, dumplings,
and grilled sausages) prepared with the addition of seaweeds under a different thermal
regime of cooking ranged from 15 to 50% (Kryzhova et al., 2021).
When using seaweed as food, concerns may arise about the possible presence of
non- metals such as arsenic and silicon, as well as metals such as aluminum, cadmium,
lead, rubidium, strontium, and tin (Lähteenmäki- Uutela et al., 2021). The accumulation
of these elements in seaweed depends on the composition of the water and the state of
the ecosystem in which algae grows. Seaweeds growing in contaminated areas polluted
due to industrial activities can accumulate these elements from the surrounding water.
However, the levels found in seaweeds typically pose little risk to human health (Cherry
et al., 2019).
Thus, wakame has arsenic content ranging between 3 and 4 mg/ 100 g DW (Cofrades
et al., 2010). The inorganic forms of As are the most toxic, while the organic forms are
considered practically non- toxic. The reference dose for inorganic As is established as
0.3 µg/ kg of body weight per day (UEPA, 1991).The tolerable daily intake for inorganic
As is 150 mg/ day for an adult weighing 70 kg (WHO, 1989). Wakame is considered safe
for consumption, as the content of inorganic As in them is less than 0.3 g/ g, making
it suitable as a potential food ingredient (Rose et al., 2007). Small amounts, less than
0.050 mg/ 100 g DW, were reported for other minerals such Cd, Pb, and Se (Cofrades
et al., 2010).
12.3 WAKAME IN HUMAN NUTRITION
Undaria pinnatida is widely used in nutrition in Asia, particularly in Japan (Mouritsen
et al., 2018). Japanese cuisine includes signicant amounts of seaweeds, with an average
consumption of 4– 7 grams per day, equivalent to approximately 4 kg per person per
year (Teas et al., 2004). This high seaweed intake correlates with dietary iodine intakes
ranging from 200 to 20,000 g per day (Kolb et al., 2004; Teas et al., 2004). The inclu sion of seaweed in the diet has been associated with health benets, such as a reduced
risk of hyperglycemia, hypercholesterolemia, and hyperlipidemia due to the bioactive
compounds they contain (Gullón et al., 2020; MacArtain et al., 2007).
Wakame subtle sweetness and silky texture make it a popular choice in meals,
including soups, salads, and side dishes. The blades are usually cut into small pieces. In
Japan and Europe, they are often consumed dried or salted, serving as a main ingredient
in miso soups, tofu salad and goma wakame, a sesame- avored seaweed salad popular
in sushi restaurants (Zhao et al., 2018).
The consumption of wakame is not limited to East Asia. In recent years, there has
been a growing interest in incorporating seaweed into Western diets due to its health
benets and sustainable sourcing. In Europe and North America, wakame is now available in various forms, including dried, salted, and fresh, and is increasingly being used
in innovative culinary applications (Cherry et al., 2019). For example, wakame, which
contains high amount of potassium, can be considered as a substitute for table salt, while
Wild Edible Brown Algae Wakame as a Food Supplement 335
in equal quantities potassium is 8 times “saltier” than sodium (Pereira, 2023a). It has
been shown that the presence of volatile aromatic compounds in seaweeds may aid in
the development of new food and beverage products (Reboleira et al., 2021; Stabnikova
et al., 2021).
Recent trends in innovative and health- oriented gastronomy have revitalized the use
of seaweeds in Western cuisines, driven by a growing interest in sustainable and nutritious foods. This resurgence is supported by collaborations between scientists, chefs,
and culinary entrepreneurs, aiming to introduce seaweed- based dishes into mainstream
diets as part of a healthy and sustainable food movement (Mendes et al., 2022; Salido
et al., 2024).
Wakame algae has also gained attention as a functional ingredient in the formulation of fortied foods (Matos et al., 2024; Peñalver et al., 2020). Its rich content of
bioactive compounds, including polysaccharides like alginates and fucoidan, proteins,
polyphenols, carotenoids, and omega- 3 fatty acids, makes it a valuable addition to
various food products aimed at enhancing nutritional value (Silva et al., 2024). Wakame
serves as a natural alternative to salt, offering a high potassium content while being
lower in sodium compared to traditional salts. Wakame can be used as a salt substitute in
various food applications, helping to lower sodium intake while maintaining avor. This
is particularly important in the context of public health, as excessive sodium consumption is associated with an increased risk of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases
(Pereira, 2023a; Shannon & Abu- Ghannam, 2019).
Wakame has been successfully incorporated into a variety of food products,
including bread, pasta, meat, and dairy products. One of the primary uses of wakame
in food fortication is its incorporation into snacks, soups, and sauces to increase their
mineral and ber content. For example, adding wakame to bread and crackers can
enhance their calcium and iodine levels, providing a functional benet beyond basic
nutrition (Pereira, 2023a). The incorporation of wakame into these products not only
boosts their nutritional value but also improves their sensory properties, such as avor
and texture, which are essential for consumer acceptance.
Incorporating wakame into pasta at different levels results in products with
enhanced bio- functional characteristics, including increased antioxidant properties
from 0.16 to 2.14 mg ascorbic acid equivalent (AAE)/ g, phenolic content from 0.10 to
0.94 mg GAE/ g, fucoxanthin and fucosterol contents, and improved fatty acid composition (Prabhasankar et al., 2009). Pasta with 10% of wakame was found to be sensorially
acceptable, with mild seaweed avor and enhanced nutritional quality, particularly in
terms of ω- 6 to ω- 3 fatty acid ratio 3.4. The heat treatment applied during the preparation and cooking of pasta did not degrade fucoxanthin (Prabhasankar et al., 2009).
Meat products in human nutrition are important sources of protein, essential amino
acids, fat, minerals, vitamins and other nutrients. Recently, more and more attention
has been paid to the development of meat products with the inclusion of functional
ingredients to reduce fat, cholesterol, and salt content and improved fatty acid composition (Cofrades et al., 2013; Stabnikova et al., 2021). It has been suggested that wakame
be included in meat products such as beef patties and pork sausages (López- López et al.,
2009a, 2010; Nagai et al., 2022). The addition of wakame to beef patties increased poly phenol content and improved potassium, calcium, magnesium, and manganese content,
providing a signicant portion of the daily recommended intakes of essential minerals.
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