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306 Wild Edible Plants
and decrease water loss in frozen dough bread during room storage for 7 days (Fu
et al., 2021). At the same time, textural properties of frozen dough bread were improved,
namely, hardness decreased with a reduced rate of staling during the storage. Moisture
loss and starch retrogradation, the transition from an amorphous to a crystalline state,
are considered the two main causes of dough bread staling. The authors showed that the
addition of Laminaria japonica polysaccharides reduces the degree of starch crystallization during dough storage due to the formation of additional hydrogen bonds, which
interferes with the reassociation and retrogradation of starch.
The use of kelp in food products is popular in Asian countries. For example, in
Korea it is proposed to produce kelp snacks based on seaweed soaked in 0.3– 0.4%
sodium tripolyphosphate (Kang et al., 2018), salads with the addition of kelp (Jung
et al., 2011), and burger patties with partial replacement (2.5%) of meat with Laminaria
japonica powder (Oh & Lim, 2011).
It shoud be noted, that due to the high content of iodine and minerals in Laminaria,
these seaweeds can be used as feed ingredient in the diets of sh (Ribeiro et al., 2015,
2017; Yu et al., 2020), farm birds (Islam et al., 2014), and farm animals (Circuncisão
et al., 2018; Rajauria et al., 2016; Yim et al., 2019) to increase the inodine amd mineral
content in their muscles.
As can be seen from the above data, the use of kelp and compounds derived from it
for the production of functional food products has been greatly expanded in recent years.
According to the data presented in Table 11.4, incorporation of Laminaria or its extracts
in different food matrices had an effect on the nutritional value of different products
and allowed their mineral composition to be improved (Choi et al., 2012; Kim et al.,
2010), content of iodine (Okhotnikov et al., 2020) and ber to be increased (Fradinho
et al., 2019), salt content to be reduced (Choi et al., 2015; Kim & Chin, 2023), the use
of synthetic additive sodium phosphate to be eliminated (Lee et al., 2018), and, when
used as a fat replacer, the content of fat and energy value to be decreased (Choi et al.,
2012). Altogether, the addition of Laminaria increased the antioxidant and antimicrobial abilities of meat protucts protecting them from lipid oxidation and extending shelflife (Kim & Chin, 2023; Lee et al., 2018; Moroney et al., 2013, 2015). The presence
of Laminaria inuenced the textual properties of food products, increasing water- and
fat- holding capacities (Kim et al., 2010; Kim & Chin, 2023), and decreasing cooking
loss, hardness, and chewiness (Choi et al., 2012, 2015; Fu et al., 2021).
11.4 COMBINED FOOD ADDITIVE AS AN
INGREDIENT FOR FOOD FORTIFICATION
11.4.1 Combined Food Additive Based on
Kelp and Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
Recently, in food production there has been a trend of using complex food supplements
with unique functional and technological proles. Among the latter, additives based on
Wild Edible Brown Algae Laminaria and Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 307
nanomaterials occupy a special place (Ameta et al., 2020; Thiruvengadam et al., 2018).
Their effectiveness is due to their high dispersity and surface activity, which determine
specic physicochemical parameters.
In studies (Tsykhanovska, et al., 2018, 2020, 2022a, 2022b), the authors proposed
a food additive based on iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs). Among the functional and
technological properties of this additive, the following should be mentioned:
• corrective effect on the surface activity of structure formers;
• inuence on the effective viscosity of colloidal disperse systems, which is one
of the factors of structure formation and the formation of a stable food matrix
at the micro- and macro- levels;
• antioxidant due to reducing Fe
2+
and has a bacteriostatic effect, slowing down
the oxidative and microbiological spoilage of food products;
• stability of physical and chemical properties in almost the entire temperature
and acid- base range of food technologies;
• water- and fat- binding and water- and fat- retaining abilities;
• emulsifying agent.
Its physico- chemical properties and interaction parameters with the main components
of the food matrix such as proteins, polysaccharides, and fats conrmed the wide functional and technological potential of this additive in technologies of traditional and
innovative foods (Tsykhanovska et al., 2018, 2022c, 2023).
In the previous sections, the uniqueness of brown seaweed Laminaria japonica as a
natural source of macro- and microelements, proteins, vitamins, and other biologically
active substances was shown. The development of a combined food additive (CFA) in
the form of a powder with an average particle size of about 200 m based on IONPs and
dried kelp powder has signicant potential in food technology due to the full manifestation of the advantages of both ingredients:
• signicant improvement in the nutrient prole of developed food products due
to kelp as a natural source of bioactive substances;
• the unique physico- chemical properties of iron oxide nanoparticles.
However, the use of dry kelp powder is associated with a signicant problem. It
was noted above that this seaweed contains a high amount of iodine. The content of this
microelement in Laminaria japonica depends signicantly on growing conditions and
harvest time and can vary widely from 241 to 10,000 g/ g DW according to various
literary data (Blikra et al., 2022; Gubsky et al., 2015; Smyth, 2021). Meanwhile, the
recommended daily allowance (RDA) of iodine consists of 150 g (Kryzhova et al.,
2021) and the tolerable upper intake level established in Europe is 600 g/ day for
adults (WHO, 2007). Dietary iodine intakes higher than these amounts may have
adverse effects on human health (Correia et al., 2021; Roleda et al., 2018). Thus,
when including Laminaria japonica in the recipe of the enriched product, these
recommendations must be taken into account. To solve this problem, it is possible to
carry out preliminary hydrothermal treatment of seaweed to reduce the iodine content
in it (Correia et al., 2021).
308 Wild Edible Plants
FIGURE 11.2 Combined food additive.
According to recommendations (Correia et al., 2021), dry seaweeds were hydrated
for 24 h, boiling for 20 min, and the processed ones were dried and ground for subsequent use. This treatment allowed reduction of the iodine content to 213 g/ g of
dry powder, which was mixed with iron oxide nanoparticles in the proportions necessary for fortifying certain food products (Tsykhanovska et al., 2024). For example,
the combined food additive used in rye- wheat bread production contained iron oxide
nanoparticles, 15% (w/ w), and Laminaria japonica powder, 85% (w/ w). It was a
nely dispersed uniform dry powder with a mean volume particle size of 197±15 m
(Figure 11.2). The powder has a greenish- brown color and a characteristic taste and
odor of algae.
The water content in the combined food additive was 4.12%. A characteristic feature of the supplement was the signicant protein content of 11.6%, while the lipid level
was 1.8% (Tsykhanovska et al., 2024).
11.4.2 Application of Combined Food Additive in
Rye- Wheat Bread Production
The proposed technology for rye- wheat bread is an example of the use of the functional
and technological properties of a complex food additive as an ingredient in the formulation (Tsykhanovska et al., 2024). The recipe for the control bread (B0) was traditional
and included the following ingredients, g: peeled rye our, 60; wheat our rst grade,
40; dry rye sourdough, 3.0; table salt, 1.4, and water, 45. To study the effect of combined
food additive (CFA) on quantitative characteristics of the dough and the nal product,
samples of wheat- rye bread with the inclusion of CFA as an ingredient in the formulation in amounts of 1.0 (B1), 1.5 (B2), and 2.0 % (B3) of our weight were prepared. The
total weight of these samples was 105.9, 107.9, and 109.9 g, so, the yield of the target
products was 143.8, 146.3, and 147.7%, respectively.
Wild Edible Brown Algae Laminaria and Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 309
TABLE 11.5 Some characteristics of rye- wheat bread without and with combined food
additive
BREAD
INDICATOR
B0 B1 B2 B3
Gluten characteristics
Wet gluten, % 26.8±0.3
Compressibility, CU 78±2
а
Extensibility, cm 15.0±0.6
а
а
27.9±0.5
73±1
14.0±0.5
b
b
28.6±0.4
70±2
12.5±0.3
b
bc
c
29.4±0.3
66±2
11.0±0.4
c
c
cd
d
Dough characteristics
Initial acidity, grades 6.9±0.1
Final acidity, grades 8.0±0.4
Spreading, mm 88.0±1.2
а
а
а
6.8±0.3
7.9±0.3
84.0±1.1
Specific volume, ml/ g 2.48±0.1а 2.64±0.11b 2.72±0.11c 2.80±0.12
Yield stress, Pa 452±8
Adhesive strength*, kPa 2.3±0.1
а
а
478±9
2.0±0.2
а
6.7±0.3
a
7.9±0.2
b
81.0±1.0
b
b
492±9
1.8±0.2
а
6.6±0.2
a
7.8±0.3
c
78.0±1.0
c
c
508±7
1.7±0.2
а
a
d
d
d
cd
Rye- wheat bread
Moisture content, % 47.0±0.2
Acidity, degrees 7.4±0.3
Specific volume, ml/ g 1.7±0.1
Porosity, % 58±1
а
47.8±0.1
а
7.3±0.2
а
а
1.8±0.1
61±1
Shape stability, H/ D 0.32±0.02а 0.35±0.01b 0.37±0.01bc 0.40±0.02
Crumbliness after baking, % 4.7±0.2
Crumbliness after storage**, % 6.1±0.4
а
а
4.3±0.3
5,5±0.3
b
48.2±0.3
a
7.2±0.q
ab
ab
ab
2.0±0.1
63±1
4.0±0.2
4.9±0.2
b
bc
48.6±0.2
a
7.1±0.2
bc
b
c
2.1±0.1
65±1
3.8±0.2
4.6±0.3
c
c
a
cd
d
c
bc
cd
a– d
Means within the same row with different superscripts are significantly different at p < 0.05.
* The value is determined using steel plates.
** The value was determined after 72 h storage.
B0 is control rye- wheat bread, B1, B2, and B3 are rye- wheat bread samples with 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0%
of combined food additive, respectively.
Source: Adapted from Tsykhanovska et al. (2024).
In the commonly used wheat our, gluten is known to be a factor inuencing the
rheological behavior of the dough (Chanvrier et al., 2007). The inclusion of a combined
food additive in the bread formulation, regardless of the amount of CFA, had a positive
effect on the quality of gluten compared to the control (Table 11.5).
The addition of the сombined food additive increased the amount of wet gluten
mainly due to the high moisture- retaining ability of CFA. The compressibility of the
gluten increased by 7– 18% (the value of the device indicator decreased) and extensibility of gluten decreased by 7– 36% for bread with 1– 2% of CFA. The trend of changes
in the value of these functional properties of the dough is associated with the waterretaining, stabilizing, and structure- forming abilities of IONP nanoparticles and the
protein- carbohydrate complex of kelp (Tsykhanovska et al., 2022b).
It was noted above that the combined food additive has a number of properties
such as water- and fat- retaining, emulsifying, and stabilizing abilities, which inuence
the dough formation time, physicochemical parameters, and structural and mechanical
310 Wild Edible Plants
properties of the dough. The inclusion of CFA in the rye- wheat dough leads to a slight
decrease in both the initial and nal acidity by 0.1– 0.3 degrees, which may be a consequence of the amphoteric properties of iron nanoparticles (Tsykhanovska et al., 2018).
Increased acidity contributes to dough liquefaction (Table 11.5).
Increase of the content of CFA changes some physical properties of the dough.
Thus, a decrease in the spreadability index of rye- wheat dough with CFA due to
strengthening of wheat gluten and an increase in the dough water- holding capacity
were observed. An increase in the specic volume of the dough from 6 (B1) to 13%
(B3) in comparison with the control (B0) was also observed. This was due to an
increased gas formation and an increased gas- holding capacity of the dough as a result
of the gluten strengthening.
The study of the rheological properties of rye- wheat dough with the combined food
additive showed a decrease of the dough spreading from 88 cm in the control to 78 mm
for dough with 2% of CFA due the high water- binding capacity of the additive. It is also
the reason for the decrease in the adhesion strength of the dough to the steel surface by
15– 35% (p < 0.05). The results obtained are consistent with the data of other studies
(Różyło et al., 2017; Tsykhanovska et al., 2022a).
Changes in the quality indicators of the developed product are presented in Table 11.5.
The inclusion of the combined food additive in the bread recipe helped to increase the
moisture content of the bread due to the high water- holding and water- absorbing capacity
of CFA. The amphoteric properties of the iron- containing component of the combined
food additive slightly reduced the acidity of the bread by 0.1– 0.3 degrees.
Incorporation of CFA affected the change in some physical properties of rye- wheat
bread compared to the control sample. Due to the improvement of the dough structure,
its gas- forming and gas- retaining capacity, there was an increase in the specic volume
from 6 to 24%; the porosity of the crumb from 5 to 12%, and the shape stability from
9 to 25% with an increase in the additive content in samples B1– B3. At the same time,
a decrease in crumbliness was observed from 9 to 24% immediately after baking and
from 11 to 33% after 72 hours of storage. Based on a comparative analysis of physicochemical, rheological, and sensory characteristics, it was concluded that the optimal
amount of inclusion of a combined food additive in the recipe of rye- wheat bread as an
ingredient is 1.5% (B2).
TABLE 11.6 Texture properties of bread samples
BREAD SAMPLE
CHARACTERISTICS B0 B2
Hardness, g 714.2±1.8
Cohesiveness, g 0.343±0.001
Elasticity, g 0.48±0.01
Chewiness, % 75.1± 0.9
Springiness, g 0.064±0.00
Means within the same row with different superscripts are significantly
different at p˂0.05
a
a
a
a
a
667.1±1.7
b
0.369±0.001
0.51±0.01
77.8±0.8
b
b
0.069±0.00
b
b
Wild Edible Brown Algae Laminaria and Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 311
To demonstrate the advantages of the developed technology of rye- wheat bread
compared to traditional bread, a detailed analysis of various characteristics of sample
B2 as optimal was carried out. An important indicator of consumer preference when
buying bread is the texture of this product. Its formation is strongly inuenced by
the interaction of the basic structure- forming components of the food matrix such as
proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. Table 11.6 presents data on the comparison of texture
indicators of the control and developed B2 samples of rye- wheat bread.
The data show a signicant decrease of hardness by 6.6% and an increase of elasticity by 6.7% in bread B2 compared with B0. The higher specic volume of the bread
leads to a decrease in hardness due to a less dense crumb and less compact cells (de la
Hera et al., 2014). This is due to a higher content of moisture and the plasticizing ability
of water molecules. At the same time, the elasticity and cohesion of bread with CFA
increased compared to the control by 7.3% and 7.1%, respectively, due to strengthening
and stabilizing the structure due to intermolecular interactions of biopolymer molecules
(proteins, fats, and carbohydrates). The consequence of the higher connectivity of bread
with CFA (1.5%) compared to the control was an increase in the chewing index by 2.7%
and an improvement in the chewability of the product.
The introduction of the combined additive has improved the biological and nutritional value of the developed rye- wheat bread (Tsykhanovska et al., 2024). There was
an increase in the score of essential amino acids in the range of 4.75– 20.05% compared
to the control. Among the essential amino acids, lysine was limited for both samples,
but its content in sample B2 was by 37.5% higher than in B0. The calculation of the
balance of essential amino acids in relation to the physiologically necessary norm as a
coefcient of utility shows an increase in its value from 0.54 for the control to 0.62 for
sample B2. This indicated an improvement in the balance of essential amino acids in
the developed rye- wheat bread. Analysis of the nutrient prole showed enrichment with
microelements, among which iodine should be highlighted. Enrichment of rye- wheat
bread with iodine at a level of 55±10 g/ 100 g allows it to be considered as a functional
product for the prevention of iodine deciency diseases.
11.5 CONCLUSIONS
The brown algae Laminaria japonica is one of the most valuable and promising types
of seaweeds, containing complete proteins, fats with a high content of polyunsaturated
acids, vitamins, pigments, polysaccharides, mineral elements, including iodine, which
makes them extremely useful for dietary nutrition. The use of a combined food additive
(CFA), obtained on the basis of dry powder of kelp and iron oxide nanoparticles taking
in a ratio of 85:15 (w/ w), in the preparation of rye- wheat bread allows enhancement of
its biological and nutritional values as well as stabilization of the structure and improvement of the textural characteristics. Because of the high content of iodine, seaweed used
for CFA preparation was thermally- treated, and 100 g of rye- wheat bread with dry kelp
powder, 1.5% (w/ w), contained 55±10 g of iodine, which comprises about 30% of the
recommended daily allowance.
312 Wild Edible Plants
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