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296 Wild Edible Plants
• valuable ingredients for the food industry (Cotas et al., 2021);
• organic fertilizers for agriculture (Karthik, & Jayasri, 2023);
• biomass for biogas production (Herrmann et al., 2015; Makkar et al., 2016).
The above list is not mutually exclusive. However, the purpose of this publication is
to consider the above- mentioned seaweeds as a valuable ingredient for the development
of nutritional supplements and functional foods.
The application of nanotechnology in food technology should be considered as
a positive impact that will grow in the near future (Ameta et al., 2020; Sanguansri &
Augustin, 2006). The reason for this is the unique and new properties of nanomaterials,
which are manifested in all aspects of food technology, from the importance of the taste
of food during development to ensuring the safety of ready- made food products during
transportation and storage during the shelf- life. Therefore, nanotechnology can play a
potential role in the advancement of the food industry.
Among nanomaterials, nanoparticles of metals and metal oxides occupy a special
place. Their special chemical and physical properties suggest their enormous potential
for use in the food industry, both in the technology for the development of innovative
food products and in the packaging of food (Adeyemi & Fawole, 2023; Joshi et al.,
2024). Recent studies show the possibility of using iron oxide nanoparticles as a food
additive with certain functional and technological properties (Tsykhanovska et al.,
2022a, 2022b). The developed food additive called Magnifood is a double oxide of
divalent and trivalent iron in the form of a homogeneous, ne, dark brown powder with
an average particle size of about 70– 80 nm, tasteless and odorless. The nanoparticles
have a spinel structure, in the lattice sites of which there are Fe
2+
and Fe
3+
cations with
structure- forming free 3d orbitals. They have a chemically active surface layer and are
characterized by a sufcient zeta potential of 33– 44 mV. However, when developing
food technology, the interaction of these particles with the main components of the
food matrix, in particular proteins and polysaccharides is of particular importance.
Nanoparticles are known to have distinctive surface properties (small particle size and
high surface- to- volume ratio) and have enormous Gibbs free energy, which may provide
great potential for interaction with biological molecules (Kashanian et al., 2017).
This chapter demonstrates the possibility of application of a combined food additive based on kelp biomass and iron oxide nanoparticles using the example of bread with
an increased content of biologically active compounds.
11.2 LAMINARIA AS A SOURCE OF VALUABLE
NUTRIENTS AND BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS
Laminaria is the genus in family Laminariaceae, the order Laminariales (kelp), class
Phaeophyceae, which includes about 30 species of brown algae. Saccharina japonica
(formerly known as Laminaria japonica), a type of brown algae, can be considered
as a source of numerous bioactive compounds. The nutritional value of most algae
is determined by the content of proteins, carbohydrates (alginates, fucoidans, ulvans,
Wild Edible Brown Algae Laminaria and Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 297
TABLE 11.1 Chemical composition of Laminaria sp.
PROXIMATE
COMPOSITION CONTENT, % DW VITAMINS
CONTENT, MG/ KG
DW
Crude protein 0.6– 16.1 Tocopherols (E) 3.0– 2000
Crude fat 0.5– 1.3 Ascorbic acid (C) 355– 910
Сarbohydrates 35.5– 60.7 Thiamine (B1) 1.4– 12.5
Total dietary fiber 36.1– 39.6 Riboflavin (B2) 1.4– 8.5
Ash 23.3– 73.0 Niacin (В3) 15.8– 612
Minerals Content, g/ kg DW Pyridoxine (В6) 0.9– 64.1
Potassium (K) 10.0– 116 Inositol (В8) 64.1
Sodium (Na) 10.0– 38.2 Folate (В9) 0.0– 0.5
Iodine (I) 0.277– 11.1 Cobalamin (В12) 0.0051
Magnum (Mn) 5.5– 8.4 Pigments Content, mg/ kg DW
Phosphorus (P) 1.2– 3.0 β- carotene 29.9
Calcium (Ca) 0.50– 2.28 Zeaxanthin 6.0
Iron (Fe) 0.012– 0.702 Fucoxanthin 33.2– 213
Manganese (Mg) 0.003– 0.038 Chlorophyll a 142– 701
Sulfur (S) 10.01– 11.0 Chlorophyll b 14.0
Selenium (Se) 0.02– 0.94 Chlorophyll c 103 – 48.2
Zinc (Zn) 0.001– 0.081 Chlorophyll d 15.6
Source: Adapted from Costa et al. (2021).
agars, and carrageenans), lipids (especially ω- 3 fatty acids), phenolic compounds
(phlorotannins), vitamins (specically A, B, C, D, E, and K) and essential minerals (such
as calcium, iron, iodine, magnesium, and potassium) (Costa et al., 2021) (Table 11.1).
Kelp is characterized by a signicant amount of protein and carbohydrates in the
range from 8.0 to 16.0% and from 30.5 to 65.7% of dry weight (DW), respectively
(Table 11.1). Their total lipid content is actually quite low, 0.5– 1.3%. The relatively low
content of fat and sugars makes it possible to classify this type of algae as a valuable
dietary product with an energy value of about 7– 10 kcal per 100 g of kelp (Mahadevan,
2015; Mohammed et al., 2021; Salido et al., 2024).
In addition to the main components, mention should be made of such bioactive
substances as pigments, lipids, fatty acids, sterols, bers, and polysaccharides, which
have a positive effect on human health and are very valuable components of food (Alisha
et al., 2019; Cherry et al., 2019; Wells et al., 2017). An important feature of algae is
their ability to synthesize biopolymers- polysaccharides, such as alginic acid, zosterin,
laminaran, and fucoidan, which dissolve well or swell in water, forming gels.
11.2.1 Macronutriens
Proteins. The main types of proteins and their derivatives in brown algae are peptides,
glycoproteins, lectins, and enzymes (Echave et al., 2022; Thiviya et al., 2022).
Laminaria has a high protein content, containing all essential amino acids (Table 11.2).
298 Wild Edible Plants
TABLE 11.2 Amino acid profile of Laminaria sp.
% OF TOTAL AMINO
AMINO ACID
ACIDS AMINO ACID
% OF TOTAL AMINO
ACIDS
Essential amino acids Non- essential amino acids
Total hydrophilic 14.2– 24.5 Total hydrophilic 21.3– 52.1
Threonine 4.2– 6.1 Serine 3.9– 5.9
Arginine 3.9– 5.5 Aspartic acid 8.4– 14.8
Histidine 1.5– 4.3 Glutamic acid 7.0– 28.3
Lysine 4.6– 8.6 Tyrosine 2.0– 3.1
Total hydrophobic 18.7– 32.9 Total hydrophobic 16.4– 31.3
Valine 4.5– 10.8 Alanine 6.8– 14.8
Leucine 5.8– 8.4 Glycine 4.8– 6.6
Isoleucine 3.2– 4.7 Proline 3.4– 6.3
Methionine 1.1– 2.9 Cystine 1.4– 3.6
Phenylalanine 3.8– 5.5
Tryptophan 0.3– 0.6
Source: Adapted from Costa et al. (2021).
This allows to claim Laminaria as a source of complete proteins, meanwhile, a recent
global assessment of protein sources highlighted the growth in demand for them until
2050 (Henchion et al., 2017).
The number of amino acids in Laminaria is identied at the level of 18, and the most
important essential amino acids consist approximately 56.7% of total amino acid content with the rst limiting amino acid tryptophan. The content of essential hydrophobic
amino acids is 1.36– 1.39 times higher that hydrophilic ones (Table 11.2). Meanwhile,
the presence of hydrophobic amino acids increased a protein’s thermal stability during
technological processing (Saelensminde et al., 2009). This is due to their non- polar
nature with the presence of free non- polar carbon radicals with small dipole moments,
which contributes to low reactivity (Costa et al., 2021; Oseyko et al., 2020). This prop erty of Laminaria sp. proteins allows them to retain their functional hydrophobic properties during technological processing under food production.
Another positive property of kelp is the absence of gluten as a protein that causes a
toxic reaction in patients with gluten enteropathy (celiac disease). This is an important
factor for improving the functional and technological properties of new low- allergenic
and gluten- free functional food products. Among the minor disadvantages of kelp
proteins, it should be noted that their quality is inferior to proteins of animal origin, for
example, milk or meat protein. But at the same time, in comparison with other vegetable
protein sources, for example, wheat, rice, or legumes, they have a qualitative superiority
(Cermeño et al., 2020; Ścieszka & Klewicka, 2019).
The level of digestibility of Laminaria proteins in humans is quite high at 70%
(Černá, 2011; Milinovic et al., 2021). Consequently, the use of this type of macroalgae
can become a good alternative in the diets of the population for easy production of this
high- quality component. Proteins of brown algae can serve to replace or supplement the
contribution of proteins from legumes and cereals in providing a balanced diet for this
component.
Wild Edible Brown Algae Laminaria and Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 299
TABLE 11.3 Fatty acid profile of Laminaria sp.
CONTENT,
% OF TOTAL
FATTY ACIDS
FATTY ACIDS FATTY ACIDS
CONTENT,
% OF TOTAL
FATTY ACIDS
Saturated (SFA) Polyunsaturated (PUSFA)
Myristic acid, 14:0 2.9– 9.1 Linoleic acid,18:2 ω- 6 5.0– 9.5
Palmitic acid, 16:0 18.0– 36.0 α- Linolenic acid,18:3 ω- 3 0.8– 7.5
Stearic acid, 18:0 0.3– 1.5 Stearidonic acid 18:4 ω- 3 1.2– 10.8
Total SFA 31.2– 46.6 Dihomo- γ- linolenic acid 20:3
1.1– 1.3
ω- 6
Monounsaturated (MUSFA)
Eicosatetraenoic acid 20:4
ω- 3
0.54
Palmitoleic acid, 16:1 ω- 7 0.44– 2.7 Arachidonic acid 20:4 ω- 6 7.0– 14.2
Hypogeic acid, 16:1 ω- 9 0.46– 2.9 Eicosapentaenoic acid 20:5
8.6– 16.2
ω- 3
Oleic acid, 18:1, ω- 9 9.0– 13.26 Total PUSFA 24.23– 60.23
Cis- vaccenic acid,18:1 ω- 7 8.8– 13.24 Total MUSFA + PUSFA 44.93– 85.96
Total MUSFA 20.7– 33.73 Ratio ω- 6/ ω- 3 1.27:1.00
Source: Adapted from Costa et al. (2021).
Lipids. The lipid prole of the brown algae Laminaria is characterized by the presence
of both neutral lipids in the form of fatty acids, triglycerides, sterols, and complex lipids,
such as glycolipids and phospholipids, but with rather low content (Lopes et al., 2021;
Salido et al., 2024) (Table 11.3).
The percent of unsaturated fatty acids (USFA) from the total content of fatty acids
averages 67.31% (Table 11.3). Predominant unsaturated fatty acids of Laminaria
include oleic, linoleic, α- linolenic, styoride, arachidonic, and eicosapentaenoic acids,
the total content of which comparises 62.5% of the total amount of fatty acids, and the
ratio between ω- 6 and ω- 3 is 1.27:1, while according to the recommendations of the
British Nutrition Foundation, their preferable ratio shoud be below 4:1 (Goiri et al.,
2019; Stabnikova & Paredes- Lopez, 2024). Consumption of Laminaria algae will con tribute to an increase in the level of these acids in the human body. It plays an important
role in maintaining the level of triglycerides and cholesterol, normalizes blood pressure.
In additional, the lipids obtained from macroalgae are well absorbed and digested in
adults by almost 98% (Milinovic et al., 2021). Consequently, the inclusion of these
macroalgae in the diet contributes to moderate lipid consumption, which is compatible
with good health.
Carbohydrates. Kelp are a rich source of carbohydrates. Laminaria contains cellulose,
alginates, fucoidan, mannitol, laminarin, and others, which accounts from 45 to 65 g/
100 g DW of the algae mass (Brown & Gordon, 2005). Dietary ber consists mainly
of cellulose and insoluble alginates (El- Said & El- Sikaily, 2013). The main storage
polysaccharides of the brown algae Laminaria are laminarin and mannitol with contents
of 3.5% and 6.62%, respectively (Costa et al., 2021; Wei et al., 2013). The preferred
300 Wild Edible Plants
carbohydrate compound in Laminaria algae is alginic acid with a content of about 23.00
g/ 100 g DW. Valuable functional properties of this acid and its derivatives known as
alginates such as gelling, structure- forming, stabilizing, and emulsifying nd a wide
use in food preparation. The ability of alginic acid and alginates to selectively adsorb
and remove heavy metals and radionuclides from the body is used in the development of
pharmacological preparations based on them (Babich et al., 2022). In addition, alginic
acid showed inhibition effect against opportunistic pathogens Staphylococcus aureus
and Escherichia coli (Kim & Chin, 2023).
Laminaria contain a large amount of dietary ber at the level of 30 g/ 100 g DW,
which is several times higher than their content in terrestrial plants, for example, almost
2 times more than in cabbage and 4 times more than in apples. Thus, the recommended
ber intake for adults of 25 g/ day can be achieved by eating either kelp or foods
containing it (Costa et al., 2021).
11.2.2 Micronutriens
Mineral prole. Kelp is rich in minerals. Minerals are extremely necessary elements
for the normal functioning of all systems of the human body, for example, sodium and
potassium for osmoregulation, iodine for cellular metabolism. Ash content in terms
of dry matter in Laminaria is on average 35.7% (Table 11.1). The total content of
macroelements Ca, K, Mg, Na, P, and S in Laminaria averaged 109 g/ kg DW or more
than 98.9% of the total amount of minerals. In this amount, a signicant contribution
of sodium and potassium is at the level of 79.7% of the total macroelements’ content,
which corresponds to an average sodium content of 53.4 g/ kg DW and potassium 25.1 g/
kg DW. The ratio of Na to K for this seaweed is 0.47, which is less than 1.0 (Biancarosa
et al., 2018; Milinovic et al., 2021; Rodrigues et al., 2015) that is much lower than in
many plant- based food products. Therefore, kelp can be used to prepare functional food
products with reduced salt content for therapeutic and prophylactic purposes (Gullón
et al., 2020).
Brown algae contain a large amount of easily digestible organoiodine compounds,
which can be used in the treatment of thyroid and vascular diseases. However, it should
be taken into account that if iodine deciency can cause various thyroid diseases,
then iodine excess can also lead to its dysfunction (Smyth, 2021). The Recommended
Dietary Allowance (RDA) for iodine is 150 g per day for adult and and 250 µg per day
for pregnant women, and according to the European Food Safety Authority, the tolerable upper daily iodine limit consists 600 g or even the 900– 1100 g per day (EFSA,
2014). Although it is known that in Japan the average iodine intake is estimated at
500– 1000 g/ day, and in some areas reaches 20,000 g/ day (Krela- Kaźmierczak et al.,
2021; Russell, 2001). Since the iodine content in kelp can be quite high, ranging from
277 g/ g DM to 1110 g/ g DM (Costa et al., 2021), the amount of iodine in functional
kelp products should be carefully monitored, despite iodine content in algae being signicantly reduced after processing due to the water- solubility of iodine and vaporizing
(Cotas et al., 2021; Kryzhova et al., 2021; Nitschke & Stengel, 2016; Teas et al., 2005).
At the same time, iodine content can be extremely variable depending on environment
conditions and season of harvest.
Wild Edible Brown Algae Laminaria and Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 301
Among microlements, the lowest content in kelp is selenium and copper at the level
of 0.3– 0.5 and 4.3– 5.0 g/ kg DW, respectively. However, the consumption of 100 g of
brown algae provides 42.85% of the daily recommended intake of selenium for an adult
(EFSA, 2017). Table 12.1 shows that kelp contains the trace element iron, so adding it
as a dietary supplement to food products helps increase the amount of iron in the diet
and prevent iron deciency anemia (Milinovic et al., 2021). In general, the amount of
minerals in Laminaria is higher compared to some vegetable crops, namely potatoes,
tomatoes, and carrots (Kumar et al., 2011), which conrms the high potential of this
algae as a mineral- fortifying agent in the development of functional foods.
Vitamins. Laminaria are capable of producing all the vitamins (Costa et al., 2021).
They are a source of almost all water- soluble B vitamins, as well as ascorbic acid
(Table 11.1). 100 g of kelp can satisfy the daily vitamin requirement of an adult in these
vitamins (Costa et al., 2021; EFSA, 2017). In addition, Laminaria has a high content
of fat- soluble vitamin E and a large number of provitamins, in particular β- carotene
(Generalić Mekinić et al., 2023). A distinctive feature of Laminaria from terrestrial
vegetable crops is the presence of vitamin B12 (Corino et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2008).
Phytochemicals. The pigments in Laminaria are represented by β- carotene, zeaxanthin,
and fucoxanthin with a content of 2.99, 0.60, and 3.33– 21.3 mg/ 100 g dw, respectively
(Costa et al., 2021) (Table 11.2). In addition to color- forming ability, they have mul tiple biological activities (Costa et al., 2021; Mikami & Hosokawa, 2013; Salido et al.,
2024). The main pigment in the process of photosynthesis of Laminaria is chlorophyll,
represented by four components in the form of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, chlorophyll
c, and chlorophyll d. Chlorophyll a has the highest content. It is known that chlorophylls
are green pigments and are used as natural dyes in culinary dishes, and food products.
European legislation (EFSA, 2008) allows the use of two natural green dyes, called
E- 140 and E- 141, derived from chlorophylls (Viera et al., 2019). Color is an important
factor in consumer preferences for a particular type of food product. Recently there
has been a trend towards the use of natural pigments. On the one hand, this is a tribute
to consumers’ healthy lifestyle, who consider naturalness a sign of the presence of
useful functional ingredients that have biological activity and multiple health benets.
Therefore, kelp pigments are an important alternative to synthetic dyes in food technologies (Costa et al., 2021; Ghosh et al., 2022; Hosseinkhani et al., 2022).
Volatile components. Volatile compounds largely determine the avor of food and are
a key factor in determining consumer acceptance of a proposed product. Laminaria
japonica was shown to contain 70 volatile avor compounds (Jiang et al., 2024).
Amomg them, alcohols were the most important class of volatile compounds (29% of
compounds identied), followed with hydrocarbons. The dominated alchohol was 1penten- 3- ol, and butane was dominated hydrocarbon (Vilar et al., 2020).
Thus, brown macroalgae Laminaria sp. have high nutritional value, but low caloric content. They are rich in dietary ber, proteins with a well- balanced amino acid
composition, vitamins, mineral complex, and biologically active compounds. They also
contain lipids with high content of unsaturated fatty acids (Miyashita et al., 2013). The
rich nutrient prole of Laminaria opens up the possibility of their use as innovative raw
ingredients in the production of high- quality functional food products.
302 Wild Edible Plants
11.3 LAMINARIA AS AN IMPORTANT
DIETARY FOOD
Seaweed has long been a part of the daily diet of many countries, especially in East
Asia, although recently they have become increasingly popular among consumers in
Europe and the United States (Cotas et al., 2024; Rahikainen et al., 2021). Seaweed
is considered a healthy, nutritious, and low- calorie food (Cikoš et al., 2020). Although
the nutritional composition of seaweed varies by species, it is generally low in fat and
contains a number of essential nutrients, such as omega- 3 and omega- 6 polyunsaturated
fatty acids, vitamins (A, C, E, and B12), iodine, dietary ber, and antioxidants. Interest
in nutrition and healthy living has increased signicantly in recent years, resulting in
increased research into healthier alternative food sources (Alisha et al., 2019; Salido
et al., 2024). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
600 species of macroalgae are used as food worldwide, and more than 200 species
have food and commercial potential in Europe (FAO, 2018; L’ahteenm’aki- Uutela et al.,
2021). However, currently, seaweeds are not included in FAO food balance sheets for
aquatic products, reecting the lack of available data collected on seaweeds and their
use in most countries (FAO, 2022).
The increasing demand for macroalgae has even led to the emergence of the term
“phyco- gastronomy” in the consumer sector (Mouritsen et al., 2018). Overall, the
following ve algae species accounted for more than 95% of global seaweed production in 2019. Among them, Laminaria and Saccharina account for 34.65% of global
cultivation for human consumption, mainly as salads, condiments, and sauces. In addition to their nutritional value, seaweed consumption has been linked to a number of
health benets, such as lowering blood pressure and preventing strokes (Arzhang et al.,
2024). Given the world’s growing population and environmental challenges, seaweeds
are also one of several sustainable options that can contribute to global food security,
both as food and feed, including aquaculture (Cai et al., 2021). From an ecological
point of view, seaweed can be considered as a biological method for carobon dioxide
(CO2) removal, which helps mitigate climate change on a global scale (Hurd, 2024;
Ross et al., 2023). In addition, seaweed can be grown in seawater, thus not competing
with arable land and fresh water (FAO, 2022). However, it should be borne in mind
that algae are capable of adsorbing heavy metal ions and other hazardous chemicals
present in the surrounding aquatic environment, so it is necessary to monitor the safety
of the algae used (Desideri et al., 2016). So, it is recommended to monitor the contents
of iodine and such metals as cadmium, lead, mercury, and arsenic in seaweeds, and
marine algae- based products (Lähteenmäki- Uutela et al., 2021; Recommendation (EU)
2018/ 464, 2018).
Addition of seaweeds to food products helps enrich them with biologically
active substances such as proteins, carbohydrates, fatty acid, vitamins, and minerals;
imparts sorption, radioprotective, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antiinammatory, antitumor, antiviral, and antimicrobial properties to food products
(Babich et al., 2022; Biancarosa et al., 2018; Kryzhova et al., 2021; Peñalver et al.,
2020; Salido et al., 2024; Stabnikova et al., 2021). The high nutrient potential of
Wild Edible Brown Algae Laminaria and Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 303
brown algae can make a signicant contribution to the expansion of the range of
nutraceuticals and functional foods, and there are a lot of studies with the aim
of incorporating this type of seaweed or its extracts into recipes for a wide range of
food products (Afonso et al., 2019; Tavares et al., 2022). Among them, brown algae
Laminaria species and isolated from them compounds are also used as ingredients in
different food matrices (Table 11.4).
TABLE 11.4 Laminaria and its compounds in the preparation of food products
FOOD
PRODUCTS SEAWEED EFFECT REFERENCE
Meat products
Minced pork A spray- dried extract
from Laminaria
digitata
Pork muscle
homogenates
Breakfast
sausages
Fucoidan from
Laminaria digitata
Laminaria japonica
powder
↓lipid oxidation in cooked patties (Moroney
et al.,
2013)
↓lipid oxidation (Moroney
et al.,
2015)
↑ash content
↑the binding properties of water
(Kim et al.,
2010)
and fat
Pork sausages Water extract from
Laminaria japonica
↓salt content by 47%
↑textural properties and water-
(Kim & Chin,
2023)
holding capacity
Pork patties Laminaria japonica
dryed with particle
size <0.5 mm, 1
or 3%, to reduce
content of fat
↑shelf- life
↑moisture, ash, and carbohydrate
content
↓protein and fat contents, energy
value, cooking loss, reduction
in diameter and thickness,
(Choi et al.,
2012)
hardness, gumminess, and
Frankfurters Laminaria japonica
dryed, with particle
size <0.5 mm, 1%,
chewiness
↓salt content
↓moisture content, cooking loss,
hardness, gumminess, and
(Choi et al.,
2015)
chewiness
↑tenderness, juiciness
Overall acceptability similar to
Emulsion- type
sausage
Laminaria japonica
powder (1.5% and
3%)
control
No sodium phosphate (synthetic
additive)
↑antioxidant and antimicrobial
(Lee et al.,
2018)
abilities
(continued)
304 Wild Edible Plants
TABLE 11.4 (Continued)
FOOD
PRODUCTS SEAWEED EFFECT REFERENCE
Dairy products
Soft cheese Laminaria saccharina
powder
Semi- hard
cheese
Laminaria ochroleuca
dry pieces (2 mm),
10 g per kg of curd
Yogurt Alginate extracted
from Laminaria
hyperborea
Fermented milk Extract from Laminaria
ochroleuca
Bakery products
Gluten- free
pasta
Frozen dough
bread
Purée from Laminaria
ochroleuca
Laminaria japonica
polysaccharides
↑content of iodine (Okhotnikov
et al.,
2020)
↑whey retention
↑moisture content
↓pH value
(Del Olmo
et al.,
2018)
Odor and flavor did not change
↑ time to reach the spoilage limit
(cfu, 106/ g) for some yeasts
(Bouillon
et al.,
2019)
Stimulation of probiotic strains
of lactic acid bacteria and
bifidobacteria
↑fiber and mineral contents
similar mechanical and texture
characteristics to the control
↑specific volume, water content
↓water loss, hardness, chewiness,
(Del Olmo
et al.,
2019)
(Fradinho
et al.,
2019)
(Fu et al.,
2021)
rate of staling during the
storage
↑: Increased; ↓: Decreased.
Meat products. Incorporation of extract from seaweed Laminaria digitata containing
9.3% of laminarin and 7.8% of fucoidan in minced pork in the amounts of 0.1– 0.5%
(w/ w) resulted in a decrease of lipid oxidation in cooked patties but did not enhance
their quality parameters (Moroney et al., 2013). High free radical scavenging activity
of seaweed extracts mainly due the presence of fucoidan was proved in further studies
(Moroney et al., 2015).
Breakfast sausages were added with powder from Laminaria japonica in the
amounts of 1, 2, 3, and 4% (Kim et al., 2010). Addition of seaweed powder, 1– 4%,
resulted in slight changes in chemical composition of sausages, namely, an increase
of ash content from 2.13 % in the control to 2.35– 2.89 %; an increase of protein content from 10.53% in the control to 11.07– 11.34, and a decrease of fat content from
26.29% to 25.99– 23.95%, respectively. Meanwhile, addition of seaweed powder signicantly reduced cooking loss and improved emulsion stability. However, the hardness,
gumminess, and chewiness of the sausages with seaweed powder increased in comparison with the control. The breakfast sausage containing 1% seaweed powder had the
highest overall acceptability.
Wild Edible Brown Algae Laminaria and Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 305
Addition of water extract from dried seaweed Laminaria japonica in pork sausages
allowed reduction of the salt level in sausages approximately by 47% altogether with
improving textural properties and water- holding capacity of the product and extended
its shelf- life (Kim & Chin, 2023).
Application of Laminaria japonica powder (1.5% and 3%) as a substitute of sodium
phosphate (synthetic additive) in emulsion- type sausage allowed healthier products to
be made with the same overall acceptability, but with higher antioxidant ability against
lipid oxidation and antimicrobial ability against bacterial growth in comparison with the
control with 0.2% sodium phosphate (Lee et al., 2018).
Incorporation of Laminaria japonica powder, 1 or 3%, to reduce fat content from
20 to 10%, in the production of pork patties resulted in a signicant increase in moisture, ash, and carbohydrate content, but a decrease of protein and fat contents, energy
value, cooking loss, reduction in diameter and thickness, hardness, gumminess, and
chewiness. Thus, a reduced- fat pork patties containing 1 or 3% of Laminaria japonica
had improved quality characteristics and sensory properties (Choi et al., 2012).
Addition of dryed Laminaria japonica (particle size <0.5 mm), 1%, into pork
patties allowed reduction of salt content from 1.5% in control to 1.0%. Pork patties with
seaweed had lower moisture content, cooking loss, hardness, gumminess, and chewiness, and higher tenderness, juiciness compared with the control, while overall acceptability scores were similar to the control (Choi et al., 2015).
Dairy products. Addition of kelp (Laminaria saccharina) with a milk mixture formula
weight of 0.2% to manufacture soft cheese allowed the high- quality product enriched
with iodine with a spicy avor to be obtained (Okhotnikov et al., 2020).
Incorporation of dryed Laminaria ochroleuca (pieces of about 2 mm) into the
curd during the preparation of semi- hard cheese resulted in enhanced whey retention,
increased moisture content, and decreased pH meaning. However, odor and avor did
not differ from those of the control cheese (Del Olmo et al., 2018).
Addition of alginate extracted from Laminaria hyperborean, 2% (w/ v), in yogurt
increased time to reach the spoilage limit (concentration of colony forming units (cfu,
106/ g) for yeasts Candida parapsilosis (from 190 h to 233 h), Debaryomyces hansenii
(from 190 h to 233 h), and Meyerozyma guilliermondii (from 196 h to 220 h) (Bouillon
et al., 2019). Addition of Laminaria ochroleuca extract stimulated probiotic strains of
lactic acid bacteria and bidobacteria and increased their cell counts during milk fermentation (Del Olmo et al., 2019).
Bakery products. Purée from Laminaria ochroleuca were proposed to be added in glutenfree pasta for the celiac population. Pasta supplemented with seaweed has a higher
content of ber (9.5±0.3 g/ 100 g DW) compared to the control (6.1±0.7 g/ 100 g dw);
a higher content of minerals including essential trace elements such as iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and copper, which are important for celiac patients. The developed
pasta also contains iodine, 100 µg/ 100 g of the product, while recommended daily
iodine need consists of 150 µg. At the same time, mechanical and texture characteristics
of the developed pasta were similar to the control (Fradinho et al., 2019).
It was shown that partial replacement of wheat our (0.5– 1.5%) with Laminaria
japonica polysaccharides signicantly increased the specic volume, water content,
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