Text 3. Energy in various contexts

The concept of energy and its transformations is useful in explaining and predicting most natural phenomena. The direction of energy transformations (what kind of energy is transformed to what other kind) is often described by entropy (equal energy spread among all available degrees of freedom), since in practice all energy transformations are permitted on a small scale, but certain larger transformations are not permitted because it is statistically unlikely that energy or matter will randomly move into more concentrated forms or smaller spaces.

Energy transformations in the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy which has been available since the Big Bang, later being ‘released’ (transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy), when a triggering mechanism is available.

The concept of energy is widespread in all sciences.

• In biology, energy is an attribute of the biological structures that is responsible for growth and development of a biological cell. Energy is thus often said to be stored by cells in the structures of molecules of substance such as carbohydrates (including sugars) and lipoids, which release energy when reacted with oxygen.

• In chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, or molecular structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structure, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved.

• In geology, continental drift, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquake are phenomena that can be explained in terms of energy transformations in the Earth’s interior. While meteorological phenomena like wind, rain, hail, snow, lightning, tornadoes and hurricanes, are all a result of energy transformations brought about by solar energy on the planet Earth.

• In cosmology and astronomy the phenomena of starts, nova, supernova, quasars and gamma ray burst are the universe’s highest-output energy transformations of matter. All stellar phenomena (including solar activity) are driven by various kinds of energy transformations. Energy is transformed either from gravitational collapse of matter (usually molecular hydrogen) into various classes of astronomical objects (starts, black holes, etc.) or from nuclear fission.

In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Heat means ‘energy in transit’ and dynamics relates to ‘movement’. Thermodynamics studies the movement of energy and how energy instills movement. Historically, thermodynamics developed out of need to increase the efficiency of first steam engines.

Energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat or work. Entropy can be defined for any system. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its properties. Properties can be combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials. So, thermodynamics describes how systems respond to changes in their surroundings. This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics, chemistry, aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, biology and materials science.

Exercise 30. Form Participle II of the given verbs. Translate them.

Describe, tell, permit, drive, study, apply, hold, write, read, do, change, build, give, lead, make, send, bring, be, spread, grow, say, involve, burst, heat.

Exercise 31. Translate word combinations with Participle II into Ukrainian.

Written work, one of the questions discussed, well-known scientist, well-done translation, rule explained by a teacher, predicted disaster, energy stored in cells, released potential energy,often said to be, increased amount, chemical transformation accompanied by heat release, transformed energy form, defined properties, stored by cells, substances involved, explained in terms of energy transformation.

Exercise 32. Identify: (a) nouns, (b) adjectives, (c) verbal forms, (d) adverbs among the following words. Translate them.

Natural, direction, practice, light, difference, lightning, different,

spread, available, transform, randomly, transformation, likely, movement, balanced, continuously, direct, move, composed, property.

Exercise 33. Derive nouns from the following verbs by adding the following suffixes: -t(ion), -ance, -ence, -ment. Translate them.

Move, direct, differ, transform, generate, depend, create, attract, define, compose, combine, apply, perform, measure, attach, develop, explain, describe, predict, permit, concentrate, act, react, accompany.

Exercise 34. Write adjectives related to the following nouns.Tran-slate the pairs.

Availability, variety, practice, significance, change, use, nature, biology, response, structure, gravitation, efficiency, reversibility.

Exercise 35. Give corresponding adverbs. Translate the pairs.

Unlike, random, significant, inevitable, rapid, current, common, fast, good, late, hard, relative, easy, recent, equal, statistical.

Exercise 36. Use negative prefixes un-, il-, im-, ir-, in-,dis-, mis-, non- to form the opposites of the following words.

Variable, sufficient, predictable, balances, efficient, regular, ho-nest, able, experienced, inform, organized, available, understand, foreseen, reversible, advantageous, interpret, logical, productive.

Exercise 37. Match the synonyms.

attribute gravity concentrate increase integrate permit transform fulfil

perform change allow combine growth quality focus attraction

Exercise 38. Work in pairs. Make questions to each sentence and answer them with reference to text3.

1. Thermodynamics studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure and volume of physical systems. 2. We use heat for a lot of things. 3. Energy is measured in many ways. 4. Thermodynamics describes how systems respond to changes in their surrounding. 5. The science developed out of need to increase the efficiency of early steam engines. 6. Energy has always existed in one form or another. 7. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics and chemistry

Exercise 39. Put the verbs in brackets into Present Simple Active or Passive.

1. The Laws of thermodynamics (apply) to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering. 2. Thermodynamics (study) the movement of energy and how energy (instill) movement. 3. Termo- dynamics (study) by second-year students. 4. Energy can (exchange) between physical systems as heat or work. 5. Heat (move) from a hot area to a colder area and work (extract). 6. Energy can (find) in a number of different forms. 7. Thermodynamics (describe) how systems (respond) to changes in their surroundings.

Exercise 40. Comment on the following statements.

1. While one form of energy may be transformed to another, the total energy remains the same. 2. All natural phenomena can be explained in terms of energy transformations. 3. Potential energy is transformed into more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy. 4. There is no absolute measure of energy. 5. Throughout the history of science, energy has been expressed in several different units.

Exercise 41. Translate into English.

1. Перетворення енергії з однієї форми в іншу спричиняють такі природні явища, як вітер, дощ, град, сніг, блискавка, ураган та інші. 2. Ентропія – це функція стану термодинамічної системи, зміна якої визначається відношенням кількості тепла до термодинамічної температури системи. 3. Енергія, з точки зору біології, відповідає за ріст і розвиток біологічної клітини. 4. Ядерна потенційна енергія виникає під час процесів ядерного розщеплювання або злиття. 5. Одну форму енергії можна трансформувати в іншу за допомогою певних пристроїв – наприклад, батарея перетворює хімічну енергію в електричну; гребля - гравітаційну потенціальну енергію в кінетичну енергію води, що тече. 6. Лопатки турбіни і генератор створюють електричну енергію.7. Перетворення енергії у природі можна поділити на дві групи: термодинамічно зворотні і незворотні.

Exercise 42. Memorize the following words and word combinations to text 4.

Motion – рух

subject(to) – піддавати (впливу, тощо)

stress – навантаження

pour – лити(ся)

pitcher – глечик

lip – край

gravity – сила тяжіння

reason – міркувати; робити висновки

tilt – нахиляти

contribute – робити внесок

arise – виникати

inversely related – обернено пропорційний

exert – 1) справляти, спричиняти, створювати (тиск); 2) докладати (зусиль)

width – ширина

constrict – звужувати

airfoil – аеродинамічний профіль

teardrop – сльоза

airstream – повітряний потік

curved – кривий; викривлений; зігнутий

straight – прямий

aloft – вгорі, у повітрі

laminar flow – ламінарний, упорядкований потік

streamline – обтічний (потік); обтікати

disruption – розрив

turbulent – турбулентний

smooth – рівний, однорідний

rough – нерівний; бурхливий

stochastic – стохастичний, випадковий

equation – рівняння

buoyancy – плавучість

dynamic pressure – динамічний тиск, швидкісний тиск

layer – шар

Exercise 43. Read and translate text 4. Select the key words and expressions for a five-minute conversation with your partners on the topic “Bernoulli’s principle application in airplane wing design”.